Teacher immediacy and student learning: An examination of lecture/laboratory and self-contained course sections
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study examined teaching assistant’s immediacy in lecture/laboratory and self-contained classes. Two hundred fifty-six students responded to instruments measuring teachers’ immediacy behavior frequency, perceptions of instruction quality, and cognitive learning. No significant difference was identified when comparing lecture/laboratory and self-contained teaching assistants’ immediacy behaviors. But all students who observed frequent immediate behaviors demonstrated higher affective and cognitive learning. Teaching assistants’ ratings had significantly higher levels of faculty-student interaction for self-contained sections but lecture/laboratory sections were significantly higher for student effort/involvement.
Downloads
Article Details
- Authors retain copyright and grant the Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (JoSoTL) right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License, (CC-BY) 4.0 International, allowing others to share the work with proper acknowledgement and citation of the work's authorship and initial publication in the Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning.
- Authors are able to enter separate, additional contractual agreements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in the Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning.
- In pursuit of manuscripts of the highest quality, multiple opportunities for mentoring, and greater reach and citation of JoSoTL publications, JoSoTL encourages authors to share their drafts to seek feedback from relevant communities unless the manuscript is already under review or in the publication queue after being accepted. In other words, to be eligible for publication in JoSoTL, manuscripts should not be shared publicly (e.g., online), while under review (after being initially submitted, or after being revised and resubmitted for reconsideration), or upon notice of acceptance and before publication. Once published, authors are strongly encouraged to share the published version widely, with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in the Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning.
References
Allen, M., Witt, P., & Wheeless, L. (2006). The Role of Teacher Immediacy as a Motivational Factor in Student Learning: Using Meta-analysis to Test a Causal Model. Communication Education, 55, 21-31. doi: 10.1080/03634520500343368
Anderson, J. (1979). Teacher Immediacy as a Predictor of Teaching Effectiveness. In D. Nimmo (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 3 (pp. 543-559). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
Andersen, J. (1986). Instructor Nonverbal Communication: Listening to Our Silent Messages. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 26, 41-49. doi: 10.1002/tl.37219862607
Andersen, P., & Andersen, J. (1982). Nonverbal Immediacy in Instruction. In L. Barker (Ed.), Communication in the Classroom (pp. 98-120). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Andersen, J., Nussbaum, J., Pecchioni, L., & Grant, J. (1999). Interaction Skills in Instructional Settings. In A. Vangelisti, J. Daly, & Friedrich (Ed.), Teaching Communication: Theory, Research, and Methods (pp. 359-374). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bloom, B. (1956). A Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longmans, Green.
Book, C., & Putnam, J. (1992). Organization and Management of a Classroom as a Learning Community Culture. In V. Richmond & J. McCroskey (Eds.), Power in the Classroom: Communication, Control, and Concern (pp. 101-119). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Burgoon, J., Buller, D., Hale, J., & de Turck, M. (1984). Relational Messages Associated with Nonverbal Behaviors. Human Communication Research, 10, 351-378. doi: 10.1111/j.14682958.1984.tb00023.x
Burgoon, J., & Saine, T. (1978). The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Christophel, D., & Gorham, J. (1995). A Test-retest Analysis of Student Motivation, Teacher Immediacy and Perceived Sources of Motivation and Demotivation in College Classes. Communication Education, 44, 292-305. doi: 10.1080/03634529509379020
Collins, M. (1976). The Effects of Training for Enthusiasm on the Enthusiasm Displayed by Preservice Elementary Teachers. Education, 33, 130-337.
Coppola, B. (2002). Laboratory Instruction: Ensuring an Active Learning Experience. In W. McKeachie (Eds.), Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers (pp. 235-244). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Gorham, J. (1988). The Relationship Between Verbal Teacher Immediacy and Student Learning. Communication Education, 37, 40-53. doi: 10.1080/03634528809378702
Gray, P. L., Buerkel-Rothfuss, N. L., & Yerby, J. (1986). PSI-based and Lecture-recitation Formats of Instruction in the Introductory Speech Communication Course. Communication Education, 35 (2), 111-125. doi: 10.1080/03634528609388329
Hackman, M., & Walker, K. (1990). Instructional Communication in the Televised Classroom: The Effects of System Design and Teacher Immediacy on Student Learning and Satisfaction. Communication Education, 39, 196-206. doi: 10.1080/03634529009378802
Jordan, F. (1989). An Examination of the Relationship Between Perceived Verbal and Paralinguistic Immediacy and Accommodation to Perceived Cognitive Learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, West Virginia University, Morgantown.
Kearney, P., Plax, T., & Wendt-Wasco, N. (1985). Teacher Immediacy for Affective Learning in Divergent Classes. Communication Quarterly, 33, 61-74. doi: 10.1080/01463378509369579
Kelly, D., & Gorham, J. (1988). Effects of Immediacy on Recall of Information. Communication Education, 37, 198-207. doi: 10.1080/03634528809378719
McCroskey, J. C. (1994). Assessment of Affect Toward Communication and Affect Toward Instruction in Communication. In S. Morreale & M. Brooks (Eds.), 1994 SCA Summer Conference Proceedings and Prepared Remarks: Assessing College Student Competence in Speech Communication. Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.
McCroskey, J., & Richmond, V. (1992). Increasing Teacher Influence Through Immediacy. In V. Richmond & J. McCroskey (Eds.), Power in the Classroom: Communication, Control, and Concern (pp. 101-119). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
McKeachie, W. (2002a). Facilitating Experiential Learning: Service Learning, Fieldwork, and Collaborative Research. In W. McKeachie (Eds.), Teaching tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers (pp. 245-249). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
McKeachie, W. (2002b). How to Make Lectures More Effective. In W. McKeachie (Eds.), Teaching tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers (pp. 5269). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Mehrabian, A. (1969). Some Referents and Measures of Nonverbal Behavior. Behavioral Research Methods and Instruments, 1, 213-217.
Mehrabian, A. (1971). Verbal and Nonverbal Interaction of Strangers in a Waiting Situation. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 5, 127-138.
Menzel, K., & Carrell, L. (1999). The Impact of Gender and Immediacy on Willingness to Talk and Perceived Learning. Communication Education, 48, 31-40. doi: 10.1080/03634529909379150
Moore, A., Masterson, J., Christophel, D., & Shea, K. (1996). College Teacher Immediacy and Student Ratings of Instruction. Communication Education, 45, 29-39. doi: 10.1080/03634529609379030
Morreale, S. P., Hugenberg, L., & Worley, D. (2006). The Basic Communication Course at U.S. Colleges and Universities in the 21st Century: Study VII. Communication Education, 55(4), 415437. doi: 10.1080/03634520600879162
Murry, H. (1997). Effective Teaching Behaviors in the College Classroom. In R. Perry & J. Smart (Eds.), Effective Teaching in Higher Education: Research and Practice (pp. 171-204). New York: Agathon.
Norton, R. (1986). Communicator Style in Teaching: Giving Good Form to Content. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 26, 33-40. doi: 10.1002/tl.37219862606
Pascarella, E., & Terenzini, P. (1980). Predicting Freshman Persistence and Voluntary Dropout Decisions From a Theoretical Model. Journal of Higher Education, 52, 197-210.
Plax, T., & Kearney, P. (1999). Classroom Management: Contending with College Student Discipline. In A. Vangelisti, J. Daly, & Friedrich (Ed.), Teaching Communication: Theory, Research, and Methods (pp. 269-286). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Plax, T., Kearney, P., McCroskey, J., & Richmond, V. (1986). Power in the Classroom VI: Verbal Control Strategies, Nonverbal Immediacy, and Affective Learning. Communication Education, 35, 43-55. doi: 10.1080/03634528609388318
Richmond, V. (1990). Communication in the Classroom: Power and Motivation. Communication Education, 39, 181-195. doi: 10.1080/03634529009378801
Richmond, V., Gorham, J., & McCroskey, V. (1987). The Relationship Between Selected Immediacy Behaviors and Cognitive Learning. In M. McLaughlin (Ed.), Communication yearbook 10 (pp. 574-590). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Richmond, V., & McCroskey, J. (2000). Nonverbal Behavior in Interpersonal Relations. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., & Johnson, A. E. (2003). Development of the Nonverbal Immediacy Scale (NIS): Measures of Self- and Other-perceived Nonverbal Immediacy. Communication Quarterly, 51, 502-515. doi: 10.1080/01463370309370170
Sanders, J., & Wiseman, R. (1990). The Effects of Verbal and Nonverbal Teacher Immediacy on Perceived Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Learning in the Multicultural Classroom. Communication Education, 39, 341-353. doi: 10.1080/03634529009378814
Sweet, R. (1986). Student Dropout in Distance Education: An Application of Tinto’s Model. Distance Education, 7, 201-213. doi: 10.1080/0158791860070204
Tinto, V. (1975). Dropout from Higher Education: A Theoretical Synthesis of Recent Research. Review of Educational Research, 45, 89-125. doi: 10.3102/00346543045001089
Titsworth, B. S. (2004). Students’ Notetaking: The Effects of Teacher Immediacy and Clarity. Communication Education, 53 (4), 305-320. doi: 10.1080/0363452032000305922
Todd, T.S., Tilson, L. D., Cox, S. A., & Malinauskas, B. (2000). Assessing the Perceived Effectiveness of the Basic Communication Course: An Examination of Mass-lecture Format Versus the Self-contained Format. Journal of the Association of Communication Administration, 29, 185-195.
Wanzer, M. B., & McCroskey, J. C. (1998). Teacher Socio-communicative Style as a Correlate of Student Affect Toward Teacher and Course Material. Communication Education, 47 (1), 4352. doi: 10.1080/03634529809379109
Wiener, M., & Mehrabian, A. (1968). Language Within Language: Immediacy, a Channel in Verbal Communication. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Wildermuth, S. M., French, T., & Fredrick, E. (2013). Finding the Right Fit: Assessing the Impact of Traditional v. Large Lecture/small Lab Course Formats on a General Education Course. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 7 (1). Retrieved from http://academics.georgiasouthern.edu/ijsotl/v7n1/articles/PDFs/acc%20Art_Wildermuth%20et%20al.pdf
Witt, P., Schrodt, P., & Turman, P. (2010). Instructor Immediacy: Creating Connections Conducive to Classroom Learning. In D. L. Fassett & J. T. Warren (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Communication and Instruction (pp. 201-219). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Witt, P., & Wheeless, L. (2001). An Experimental Study of Teachers’ Verbal and Nonverbal Immediacy and Students’ Affective and Cognitive Learning. Communication Education, 50, 327-342. doi: 10.1080/03634520109379259
Witt, P., Wheeless, L., & Allen, M. (2004). A Meta-analytical Review of the Relationship Between Teacher Immediacy and Student Learning. Communication Monographs, 71(2), 184207. doi: 10.1080/036452042000228054
Witt, P., Wheeless, L., & Allen, M. (2006). The Relationship Between Teacher Immediacy and Student Learning: A Meta-analysis. In B. M. Gayle, R. W. Preiss, N. Burrell, & M. Allen (Eds.), Classroom Communication and Instructional Processes: Advances Through Meta-analysis (pp. 149-168). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.