Not All Flipped Classes are the Same Using Learning Science to Design Flipped Classrooms
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Published:
Sep 20, 2019
Keywords:
cognitive science, learning, flipped classroom, curriculum desgin, statistics, quantitative reasoning
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Abstract
The flipped classroom has recently become a popular method used in both higher education and K-12 classrooms, yet research has not consistently demonstrated clear benefits of flipping a classroom. Also, any benefits seen might not be from the flipped design itself, but instead from the individual aspects of a flipped classroom (e.g., more active learning in class, more feedback on homework). This suggests that research focused on how to develop the activities and components of the flipped classroom, instead of simply flipping the traditional in-class and out-of-class activities, is critical to flipped pedagogy. These activities (both in and out of the classroom) should be designed based on a theory of learning. We draw upon the Practicing-Connections (PC) hypothesis, supported by contemporary theories and research in the cognitive sciences, to design instructional activities to promote learning by having students practice making connections between concepts and situations. This paper examines the theory-driven-design approach, PC hypothesis, versus a basic flipped classroom. The results of this work offers suggestions as to what dimensions of flipping may be important and how to design and evaluate flipped classrooms based on theories of learning.
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Lawson, A., Davis, C., & Son, J. (2019). Not All Flipped Classes are the Same: Using Learning Science to Design Flipped Classrooms. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 19(5). https://doi.org/10.14434/josotl.v19i5.25856
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References
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Baepler, P., Walker, J. D., & Driessen, M. (2014). It’s not about seat time: Blending, flipping, and efficiency in active learning classrooms. Computers and Education, 78, 227-236. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2014.06.006
Barsalou, L. W. (1999). Perceptions of perceptual symbols. Behavioral and Brain Science, 22(4), 637-660.
Barsalou, L. (2003). Situated simulation in the human conceptual system. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18(5-6), 513-562.
Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2005). When high-powered people fail: Working memory and “choking under pressure” in math. Psychological science, 16(2), 101-105.
Bergmann, J. & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: How to reach every student in every class every day. Washington, DC: International Society for Technology in Education.
Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewksi, K. H. & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246-263.
Burke, A. S. & Fedorek, B. (2017). Does “flipping” promote engagement?: A comparison of a traditional, online, and flipped class. Active Learning in Higher Education, 18(1), 11-24. DOI: 10.1177/1469787417693487
Chase, W. G., & Ericsson, K. A., (1981). Skilled memory. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive Skills and Their Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in Chess. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 55-81.
Cohen, P. A., Ebeling, B. J., & Kulik, J. A. (1981). A meta-analysis of outcome studies of visual-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 29(1), 26-36.
Damasio, A. R. (1989). 3. Concepts in the brain. Mind & Language, 4(1), 24-28. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0017.1989.tb00236.x
Deslauriers, L., Schelew, E., Wieman, C. (2011). Improved learning in a large-enrollment physics class. Science, 332(6031). DOI: 10.1126/science.1201783
Dweck, C. S. (2007). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Ballantine Books.
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363-406.
Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(23), 8410-8415.
Galway, L. P., Corbett, K. K., Takaro, T. K., Tairyan, K., & Frank, E. (2014). A novel integration of online and flipped classroom instructional models in public health higher education. BMC Medical Education 14, 181. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-14-181
Garofalo, J. (1989). Beliefs and their influence on mathematical performance. The Mathematics Teacher, 82(7), 502-505.
Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general role for analogical encoding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 393-408. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.393
Gick, M. L. & Holyoak, K. J. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 306-355.
Gick, M. L. & Holyoak, K. J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 1-38.
Gilboy, M. B., Heinerichs, S., Pazzaglia, G. (2015). Enhancing student engagement using the flipped classroom. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 47(1), 109-114. DOI: 10.1016/j.jneb.2014.08.008
Glenberg, A. M. (1997). Mental models, space, and embodied cognition. In T. B. Ward, S. M. Smith, & J. Vaid (Eds.), Creative Thought: An Investigation of Conceptual Structures and Processes (pp. 495-522). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1036/10227-018
Griffith, J. D., Adams, L. T., Gu, L. L., Hart, C. L., & Nichols-Whitehead, P. (2012). Students’ attitudes toward statistics across the disciplines: A mixed-methods approach. Statistics Education Research Journal, 11(2), 45-56.
He, Y., Swenson, S., & Lents, N. H. (2012). Online video tutorials increase learning of difficult concepts in an undergraduate analytical chemistry course. Journal of Chemical Education,89, 1128-1132. DOI: dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed200685p
Hill, J. L., & Nelson, A. (2011). New technology, new pedagogy? Employing video podcasts in learning and teaching about exotic ecosystems. Environmental Education Research, 17, 393-408. DOI: https://doi.org/10.0180/13504622.2010.545873
Jensen, J. L., Kummer, T. A., Godoy, P. D. d. M. (2014). Improvements from a flipped classroom may simply be the fruits of active learning. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 14, 1-12. DOI: 10.1187/cbe.14-08-0129
Kapur, M. (2008). Productive failure. Cognition and Instruction, 26(3), 379-424.
Kapur, M. (2012). Productive failure in learning the concept of variance. Instructional Science, 40, 651-672. DOI: 10.1007/s11251-012-9209-6
Kapur, M. (2014). Productive failure in learning math. Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 38, 1008-1022. DOI: 10.1111/cos.12107
Koedinger, K. R. (2002). Toward evidence for instructional design principle: Examples from Cognitive Tutor Math 6. In D. S. Mewborn, P. Sztajn, D. Y. White, H. G., Wiegel, R. L. Bryant, & K. Nooney (Eds.), Proceedings of Twenty-Fourth Annual Meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Vol. 1 (21-49). Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education.
Lage, M. J., Platt, G. J., & Treglia, M. (2000). Inverting the classroom: A gateway to creating an inclusive learning environment. The Journal of Economic Education, 31(1), 30-43. DOI: 10.2307/1183338
Ma, X. (1999). A meta-analysis of the relationship between anxiety toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30(5), 520-540.
Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E., & Zhao, J. (2013). Poverty impedes cognitive function. Science, 341(6149), 976-980. DOI: 10.1126/science.1238041
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2009). Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. US Department of Education.
Merkt, M., Weigand, S., Heier, A., Schwan, S. (2011). Learning with videos vs. learning with print: The role of interactive features. Learning and Instruction, 21(6), 687-704. DOI: https://doi.org/10/1016/j.learninstruc.2011.03.004
Merrill, M. D. & Twitchell, D. G. (1994). Instructional Design Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Publications, Inc.
Neef, N. A., McCord, B. E., & Ferreri, S. J. (2006). Effects of guided notes versus completed notes during lectures on college students’ quiz performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39(1), 123-130.
Nouri, J. (2016). The flipped classroom: For active, effective and increase learning - especially for low achievers. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 13(33), 1-10. DOI: 10.1186/s41239-016-0032-z
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1989). Explorations of students’ mathematical belief and behavior. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 338-355.
Schwan, S., & Riempp, R. (2004). The cognitive benefits of interactive videos: Learning to tie nautical knots. Learning and Instruction, 14, 293-305. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2004.06.005
Stigler, J. W., Givvin, K. B., & Thompson, B. J. (2010). What community college developmental mathematics students understand about mathematics. MathAMATYC Educator, 1(3), 4-16.
Stigler, J. W. & Hiebert, J. (1999). The teaching gap: Best ideas from the world’s teachers for improving education in the classroom. New York, NY: Free Press.
Son, J. Y., Ramos, P., DeWolf, M., Loftus, W., & Stigler, J. W. (2018). Exploring the practicing-connections hypothesis: Using gesture to support coordination of ideas in understanding a complex statistical concept. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3(1), 1-13. DOI: 10.1186/s41235-017-0085-0
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257-285.
VanLehn, K. (1991). Rule acquisition events in the discovery of problem solving strategies. Cognitive Science, 15(1), 1-48.
Watkins, A. E., Scheaffer, R. L., & Cobb, G. W. (2011). Statistics: From data to decision (2nd ed.) John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Wilson, S. G. (2013). The flipped class: A method of address the challenges of an undergraduate statistics course. Society for the Teaching of Psychology, 40(3), 193-199. DOI: 10.1177/0098628313487461
Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302-314. DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2012.722805
Yong, D. Levy, R., Lape, N. (2015). Why no difference? A controlled flipped classroom study for an introductory differential equations course. Problems, Resources, and Issues in Mathematics Undergraduate Studies, 25, 907-921. DOI: 10.1080/10511970.2015.1031307
Baepler, P., Walker, J. D., & Driessen, M. (2014). It’s not about seat time: Blending, flipping, and efficiency in active learning classrooms. Computers and Education, 78, 227-236. DOI: 10.1016/j.compedu.2014.06.006
Barsalou, L. W. (1999). Perceptions of perceptual symbols. Behavioral and Brain Science, 22(4), 637-660.
Barsalou, L. (2003). Situated simulation in the human conceptual system. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18(5-6), 513-562.
Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2005). When high-powered people fail: Working memory and “choking under pressure” in math. Psychological science, 16(2), 101-105.
Bergmann, J. & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: How to reach every student in every class every day. Washington, DC: International Society for Technology in Education.
Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewksi, K. H. & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246-263.
Burke, A. S. & Fedorek, B. (2017). Does “flipping” promote engagement?: A comparison of a traditional, online, and flipped class. Active Learning in Higher Education, 18(1), 11-24. DOI: 10.1177/1469787417693487
Chase, W. G., & Ericsson, K. A., (1981). Skilled memory. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive Skills and Their Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in Chess. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 55-81.
Cohen, P. A., Ebeling, B. J., & Kulik, J. A. (1981). A meta-analysis of outcome studies of visual-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 29(1), 26-36.
Damasio, A. R. (1989). 3. Concepts in the brain. Mind & Language, 4(1), 24-28. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0017.1989.tb00236.x
Deslauriers, L., Schelew, E., Wieman, C. (2011). Improved learning in a large-enrollment physics class. Science, 332(6031). DOI: 10.1126/science.1201783
Dweck, C. S. (2007). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Ballantine Books.
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363-406.
Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(23), 8410-8415.
Galway, L. P., Corbett, K. K., Takaro, T. K., Tairyan, K., & Frank, E. (2014). A novel integration of online and flipped classroom instructional models in public health higher education. BMC Medical Education 14, 181. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-14-181
Garofalo, J. (1989). Beliefs and their influence on mathematical performance. The Mathematics Teacher, 82(7), 502-505.
Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., & Thompson, L. (2003). Learning and transfer: A general role for analogical encoding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 393-408. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.393
Gick, M. L. & Holyoak, K. J. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 306-355.
Gick, M. L. & Holyoak, K. J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 1-38.
Gilboy, M. B., Heinerichs, S., Pazzaglia, G. (2015). Enhancing student engagement using the flipped classroom. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 47(1), 109-114. DOI: 10.1016/j.jneb.2014.08.008
Glenberg, A. M. (1997). Mental models, space, and embodied cognition. In T. B. Ward, S. M. Smith, & J. Vaid (Eds.), Creative Thought: An Investigation of Conceptual Structures and Processes (pp. 495-522). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1036/10227-018
Griffith, J. D., Adams, L. T., Gu, L. L., Hart, C. L., & Nichols-Whitehead, P. (2012). Students’ attitudes toward statistics across the disciplines: A mixed-methods approach. Statistics Education Research Journal, 11(2), 45-56.
He, Y., Swenson, S., & Lents, N. H. (2012). Online video tutorials increase learning of difficult concepts in an undergraduate analytical chemistry course. Journal of Chemical Education,89, 1128-1132. DOI: dx.doi.org/10.1021/ed200685p
Hill, J. L., & Nelson, A. (2011). New technology, new pedagogy? Employing video podcasts in learning and teaching about exotic ecosystems. Environmental Education Research, 17, 393-408. DOI: https://doi.org/10.0180/13504622.2010.545873
Jensen, J. L., Kummer, T. A., Godoy, P. D. d. M. (2014). Improvements from a flipped classroom may simply be the fruits of active learning. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 14, 1-12. DOI: 10.1187/cbe.14-08-0129
Kapur, M. (2008). Productive failure. Cognition and Instruction, 26(3), 379-424.
Kapur, M. (2012). Productive failure in learning the concept of variance. Instructional Science, 40, 651-672. DOI: 10.1007/s11251-012-9209-6
Kapur, M. (2014). Productive failure in learning math. Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 38, 1008-1022. DOI: 10.1111/cos.12107
Koedinger, K. R. (2002). Toward evidence for instructional design principle: Examples from Cognitive Tutor Math 6. In D. S. Mewborn, P. Sztajn, D. Y. White, H. G., Wiegel, R. L. Bryant, & K. Nooney (Eds.), Proceedings of Twenty-Fourth Annual Meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Vol. 1 (21-49). Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education.
Lage, M. J., Platt, G. J., & Treglia, M. (2000). Inverting the classroom: A gateway to creating an inclusive learning environment. The Journal of Economic Education, 31(1), 30-43. DOI: 10.2307/1183338
Ma, X. (1999). A meta-analysis of the relationship between anxiety toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30(5), 520-540.
Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E., & Zhao, J. (2013). Poverty impedes cognitive function. Science, 341(6149), 976-980. DOI: 10.1126/science.1238041
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., & Jones, K. (2009). Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: A meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. US Department of Education.
Merkt, M., Weigand, S., Heier, A., Schwan, S. (2011). Learning with videos vs. learning with print: The role of interactive features. Learning and Instruction, 21(6), 687-704. DOI: https://doi.org/10/1016/j.learninstruc.2011.03.004
Merrill, M. D. & Twitchell, D. G. (1994). Instructional Design Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Publications, Inc.
Neef, N. A., McCord, B. E., & Ferreri, S. J. (2006). Effects of guided notes versus completed notes during lectures on college students’ quiz performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39(1), 123-130.
Nouri, J. (2016). The flipped classroom: For active, effective and increase learning - especially for low achievers. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 13(33), 1-10. DOI: 10.1186/s41239-016-0032-z
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1989). Explorations of students’ mathematical belief and behavior. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 338-355.
Schwan, S., & Riempp, R. (2004). The cognitive benefits of interactive videos: Learning to tie nautical knots. Learning and Instruction, 14, 293-305. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2004.06.005
Stigler, J. W., Givvin, K. B., & Thompson, B. J. (2010). What community college developmental mathematics students understand about mathematics. MathAMATYC Educator, 1(3), 4-16.
Stigler, J. W. & Hiebert, J. (1999). The teaching gap: Best ideas from the world’s teachers for improving education in the classroom. New York, NY: Free Press.
Son, J. Y., Ramos, P., DeWolf, M., Loftus, W., & Stigler, J. W. (2018). Exploring the practicing-connections hypothesis: Using gesture to support coordination of ideas in understanding a complex statistical concept. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3(1), 1-13. DOI: 10.1186/s41235-017-0085-0
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257-285.
VanLehn, K. (1991). Rule acquisition events in the discovery of problem solving strategies. Cognitive Science, 15(1), 1-48.
Watkins, A. E., Scheaffer, R. L., & Cobb, G. W. (2011). Statistics: From data to decision (2nd ed.) John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Wilson, S. G. (2013). The flipped class: A method of address the challenges of an undergraduate statistics course. Society for the Teaching of Psychology, 40(3), 193-199. DOI: 10.1177/0098628313487461
Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302-314. DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2012.722805
Yong, D. Levy, R., Lape, N. (2015). Why no difference? A controlled flipped classroom study for an introductory differential equations course. Problems, Resources, and Issues in Mathematics Undergraduate Studies, 25, 907-921. DOI: 10.1080/10511970.2015.1031307