Christoph Maier has assembled seventeen ad status sermons from the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, directed for the most part to crucesignati (those who have taken the cross in accordance with a crusade vow) or crucesignandi (those whom the preacher enjoins to take the cross). These model sermons were composed by Jacques de Vitry (d. 1240), Eudes de Cha^teauroux (d. 1273), Gilbert de Tournai (a Franciscan who taught in Paris between 1240 and 1260), Humbert of Romans (master general of the Dominican order from 1254-1263, d. 1277), and Bertrand de la Tour (minister general of the Franciscans, 1328-1329). These previously unedited sermons, which Maier accompanies with English translations and a long introduction, provide an interesting glimpse into the ideology of crusading and into the practice of preaching.
Jacques de Vitry was, by all accounts, an extremely popular preacher who, according to Humbert of Romans, "using exempla in his sermons, excited all France so much that no one can remember anyone, before him or since, who so excited [his listeners]." Jacques seems to be the first preacher to compile a collection of Sermones ad status (model sermons for specific audiences). His Sermones ad status comprise 74 sermons directed to 30 distinct status or classes of people: Cistercians, Benedictine Nuns, Franciscans, pilgrims, merchants, sailors, widows, etc. Various authors, particularly Franciscans and Dominicans, followed Jacques' lead in compiling collections of ad status sermons, including the other authors whose sermons are included in this volume. Maier thus provides a useful tool for those interested in the practice of preaching in the thirteenth century, by editing a few selected sermons, as there are no full critical editions for these ad status collections. His introduction places the sermons in context and is attentive to recent scholarship in the field (notably that of Louis-Jacques Bataillon, Nicole Be'riou, Penny Cole, David d'Avray, Jean Longe`re, F. Morenzoni).
The texts edited here are the model sermons that these authors propose for a status they of people they call in general "crucesignati". Jacques de Vitry presents each of the two sermons included here as addressed to "crucesignatos vel -signandos"; Gilbert of Tournai does the same. Eudes of Cha^teauroux's first sermon is an "exortatio ad assumendam crucem", a phrase which evokes both the Christ's taking up of the cross and the medieval fighter's taking and sewing on of the cloth cross that is to symbolize his vow. Eudes' four other sermons are "invitationes ad crucem". Bertrand de la Tour's three sermons are addressed "euntibus ad bellum vel pugnam vel accipientibus crucem contra infideles." Humbert of Romans addresses one sermon "ad peregrinos crucesignatos", one "In predicatione crucis contra hereticos", one "in predicatione crucis contra Sarrracenos", and one "de predicatione crucis in genere quocumque". As Maier remarks in his introduction (p. 73), these terms defy simple translation into English. Maier translates "crucesignatus" as "crusader" and "crucesignandus" as "those who will become crusaders"; but, as he notes, this involves losing the lexical richness of the Latin terms, as many of the preachers will insist on the meaning of the fact that the crusader is signed with the cross.
The virtues of the cross are indeed a central theme in many of these sermons. The cross is associated with the letter tau, by which the Hebrews in Egypt were protected from the Lord's avenging angels (Jacques de Vitry [hereafter JV], sermon 1:13). Isaiah (11:12) promised that the Lord would raise up a sign for the nations: the preacher raises the sign of the cross to call the sinful of the world to penance and to the service in the Lord's army (JV 2:7-9). The cross is the standard of the Highest King (JV 2:10); with it the Lord rallies his scattered and frightened troops and leads them to victory over sin and over human enemies (Gilbert de Tournai [GT] 1:11). It is the key to unlock the gates of heaven (JV 2:10-12; GT 3:20). It is Jacob's ladder (JV 2:12) ; it is the sword with which the Lord fights the "potestates aereas" and the devil (Eudes de Cha^teauroux [EC] 1:4, 1:9); it is the wood that sweetens bitter waters (Ecclesiasticus 38:5, JV 2:12, EC 4), it is the staff by which the King accords his mercy (Esther 4:11, GT 3:3). The cross is a sign-post, pointing to the quickest route to heaven (GT 6:8). It is a rod or stick which must be held high to frighten off the dogs of hell (GT 1:14). The cross protects those who sign themselves with it (EC 5:11); it is a shield (Bertrand de la Tour [BT] 3:3). The Templars are free to move about without paying tolls thanks to the crosses on their habit ; just so will the crucesignati gain free entrance into paradise (GT 1:18).
A key motivation for taking the cross was the plenary indulgence; the preachers emphasize what a good deal it is. The indulgences apply not only to those who take the cross and participate in military action, but extend as well to their relatives who contribute to their expenses, including their dead parents who bequeathed goods used to fund their participation (JV 2:19-20). The indulgences promise modest labor and immense reward: it is as if a worker who normally earned six pennies a day suddenly was promised a hundred marks for a day's work (JV 2:22-25). God is like a drunk who gives away a huge gift (paradise) for almost nothing (JV 2:31). The largesse that God and the Church offer is like the flood waters of Egypt: take advantage of it now, while it is in abundance, just as Egyptian peasants store up the flood water in cisterns to see them through the dry season (Humbert of Romans [HR] 2:8- 9).
Jerusalem and its Muslim overlords are mentioned only occasionally in these sermons. Jacques de Vitry bemoans the occupation of the holy city, "domina gentium," which has now become a nest of dragons where Saracens enslave Christians and invoke the name of Muhammad (JV 1:15-16). Gilbert of Tournai enjoins his listener, as a "friend of God," to recall how the "inimici crucis" put their sacrilegious hands on the holy city of Jerusalem, how they enslave Christians, prevent the sacraments from being performed, and honor the "ydolum abominationis, Machometi scilicet nomem" (GT 1:17).
Far more immediate and troublesome adversaries, for these preachers, are the friends and family members of the potential crucesignatus, who seek to dissuade him from his holy mission. Jacques de Vitry rails against them (JV 2); Eudes de Cha^teauroux calls them destroying angels (EC 5:8-9). For Gilbert de Tournai, they are carnal people signed with the kiss of Judas, the sign of the devil, the mark of death, as opposed to the crucesignati, signed with the sign of the living God (GT 2:2-3). There are those who do not wish to go on crusades and who try to dissuade others from doing so: the fearful, timid, stubborn, and obstinate (JV 2:42-44). More dangerous yet are the family members, such as the wife (in an exempla that Jacques includes in sermon 2:37) who locks her husband in the attic of their house so that he could not hear Jacques preach; he listens from a window and, upon hearing of the generosity of the promised indulgences, leaps from the window to take the cross. Jacques asks his listeners, "You did not take the advice to go to the devil from your wives; why do you wait for advice to go to God?" (JV 2:38).
These sermons provide vivid illustrations of the use of exempla in thirteenth-century preaching. Even more striking is the use of metaphor and simile. We have already seen the various images employed to describe the cross, many of them biblical in origin. Several of the preachers describe the crusade as a sort of feudal service due to the Highest Lord. He who holds a fief from a lord loses it if he does not respond to his lord's call to battle; you who hold your body and soul from the Highest Emperor, you will respond now to his call, all the more so given the greatness of the reward he offers you (JV 1:20; GT 1:18). The cloth cross sewn on the coat of the crucesignatus is likened to the glove the feudal lord gives as sign of investiture to his vassal (GT 1:21). Humbert of Romans affirms that we owe God much more service than any worldly lord (HR 2:6-7). The Lord is a king who gives generously of his treasures (HR 2:1).
Animal metaphors and similes abound in these sermons, some of them inspired by simple observation of animal behavior, others by the more elaborate symbolism of the bestiaries. A dog runs into a thornbush after his prey rather than abandon it, though he be scratched and bloody; just so must the crusader keep after his prey (the Lord) through dangers and hardships (EC 1:21). Deer leave behind their homelands and wander far, in search of new mates; just so must the crucesignati, burning with the love of Christ, abandon their homelands and travel far (EC 3). Those who refuse to take up the cross are like a monkey who throws away a sweet nut because its skin is bitter; they are like a lazy donkey who prefers to stay in a burning mill rather than run away or who hides his head in a bush when a wolf attacks (GT 1:22). The envious who seek to distract crusaders from their aim are like bears who gnaw on the flesh of others; like dogs who bite at a pilgrim's staff, they bite at the crusader's cross, but the wise pilgrim marches on and gives no heed to barking dogs (GT 2:5). Christ is a tiger who throws himself onto the hunter's spear to save the lives of his cubs (JV 2:13; GT 3:10); he is a pelican who spills his own blood over his offspring to revive them from death (JV 2:14).
These are model sermons, meant as a sort of manual or crib notes for potential preachers. The exact relation between these texts and actual sermons that their authors or others preached is problematic, and Maier judiciously makes his way through the scholarly debate surrounding the issue. By providing critical editions of the Latin texts of these sermons, good English translations, and an introduction which clearly places theses sermons in the context of current scholarship of crusading and of sermon studies, Maier has produced an extremely useful and accessible tool for scholars and students.