For readers trying to contextualize the many images of the transvestite in medieval literature, Valerie Hotchkiss' study on female cross dressing comes as a much-needed resource. Cross dressing has been a field of literary inquiry for many years now, but the Middle Ages have been conspicuously absent from most compendiums of the social phenomenon. This absence can be largely attributed to the relative scarcity of the historical record for the Middle Ages in general and, even more so, for women in particular. Nonetheless, as Hotchkiss notes, the topos of the cross dressing female is so prevalent in medieval literature that her literary image alone can give us insight into the often obscure social history of medieval woman. The transvestite's emergence in the medieval historical and literary record offers a glimpse of society's view on women's roles and potential for achievement. These women, both fictitious and historical, entered the public arena and with their actions provoked a range of re-actions. Hotchkiss examines both image and context to elucidate the many possible roles of transvestite women.
The brief introduction (Chapter 1) places the book within the current debates on cross dressing. The author underscores the importance of cross dressing to the Middle Ages, not simply because of its prevalence, but also because of what it tells us about medieval notions of gender difference.
Chapter 2, "'Female Men of God': Cross Dressing in Medieval Hagiography," examines the role of transvestism in female saints' lives. This chapter most clearly shows Hotchkiss' significant command of her material as she treats an impressive collection of hagiography from many cultures and centuries. She explores Biblical views on gender and the commentaries of the Church fathers. Denying that these transvestite women portray admiration for the potential of the female gender, Hotchkiss attributes the popularity of the cross-dressed saint to Christianity's notion that God can transform all. Even a woman, should she reject her feminine nature, can attain a higher spiritual realm. Male spiritual superiority becomes all the more evident as only women who are "manly" can attain saintliness.
The third chapter follows the case study model more precisely, treating only one woman, Hildegund von Schoenau. Unlike the women in the previous chapter, the substantial record on Hildegund (five separate accounts) combines the historical with the hagiographic. Hildegund, who lived in twelfth-century Germany, joined a monastery under the name of Joseph and told a fascinating story of her travels prior to her arrival at Schoenau. When she fell ill and died in her novice year, her fellow monks were shocked to discover that she was a woman as they prepared the body for burial. Hotchkiss is largely concerned with the crafting of Hildegund's story. Contemporary historians, eager to recount this remarkable story, struggled to assimilate her history to hagiographic models available to them. Hildegund's story falls short of the required saintliness, however, and Hotchkiss' speculations on the causes and effects of Hildegund's shortcomings provide fascinating reading.
Likewise, Chapter 4, "Transvestism on Trial: The Case of Jeanne d'Arc," reads easily and enjoyably. Less interested in recounting the story of Jeanne's transvestism, the chapter deals with the reactions to her transgression. By focusing on the heresy that ostensibly led to Jeanne's execution, Hotchkiss demonstrates how the ecclesiastical courts and society at large viewed cross dressing by real, living women. No longer relegated to discussion after the fact and fabricated stories of saintly women, transvestism by a living woman created quite a different reaction than did historical and hagiographic accounts. Hotchkiss shows the profound unrest Jeanne provoked by wearing men's clothing. Even as she underlines her femaleness by insisting on her virginity, Jeanne reinforces male-centered notions of heroism and saintliness by taking on stereotypical male dress and behavior. The contrasts and ambiguities of her case show "the fundamental contradictions in medieval cultural and biological views of gender" (68).
No less infamous during the Middle Ages, the invented story of the female pope dominates Chapter 5. After a summary of the basic premise of the legend and the changes the story underwent through the centuries, Hotchkiss looks at reactions of readers to this remarkable story. Most importantly, she shows how the story was used for other, often political, purposes, as did Jan Hus and other reformers in their attacks on the papacy. For if a woman could be pope, clearly there was no divine intervention in the election of the pope and, even more so, no hint of infallibility. As we see what parts of the legend are considered admirable and despicable, we also learn indirectly what roles were expected for women by the authors of these attacks. Boccaccio, for instance, lauds Pope Joan's learning as he decries her social audacity. Boccaccio could accept women scholars, but aspiring to head the Church (and thus exert power over men) led to her downfall. The legend of the female pope, ever malleable, reveals much about the convictions of the storyteller.
Chapters 6 and 7 delve into literary representations of cross-dressing women. A common literary theme involved women dressing as men and then rescuing their husbands from dire situations. Hotchkiss enumerates examples in the French, German, Italian and Icelandic traditions. In this secular literature, the role of the transvestite woman takes on greater ambivalence. The heroism and exploits of the women are undeniable and not usually the result of divine intervention, as was the case with saintly women. Tempting as it may be to see these characters as positive role models for women, we are reminded that the ultimate goal in most cases is reunification with the husband and wifely anonymity. Related to the literary wives are the unmarried transvestite women. Hotchkiss examines the characters of Iphis, Yde, Blanchandine, Silence and Grisandole. Her major point is that these women, with the exception of Blanchandine, perform exemplary tasks, but they retain their femininity and in the end revert to quiet, unassuming lives as women. Even Blanchandine, whom God physically transforms into a man, retains her original, heterosexual outlook.
The thrust of Hotchkiss' book, well-documented and elaborated throughout, is summed up in the brief conclusion: "The ambiguities of disguise literature invite paradoxical conclusions" (125). While transvested women take on enormous tasks and accomplish much, they remain within masculine stereotypes. In addition, what these women do is always seen as extraordinary--not within the realm of the average woman.
As an added treat, a wonderful appendix of 34 lives of transvestite saints can be found after the final chapter, providing synopses of the stories of these women's lives.
There is little fault to find with this important work. The strengths of this book are many, but most evident is the readability of Hotchkiss' prose. Her stories are well-told and always pertinent to her topic. While exploring complex notions of gender and identity, she uses little or no jargon. Her chapters, many of which could easily stand alone, would make excellent outside reading for advanced undergraduates. This book can instruct and interest readers of all levels.
Hotchkiss makes no pretense at being exhaustive, though she mentions many examples of literary cross dressing in passing. Perhaps beyond the scope of her book, in-depth analysis of some of the cursorily-treated works would be in order. Medieval male cross dressing, though referred to at times by Hotchkiss, needs equal treatment in future studies. Likewise, though Hotchkiss mentions a theoretical framework for transvestite studies, including work by Julia Kristeva and Thomas Laqueur, the connections between texts and theory are left for others to explore. Perhaps, then, one of the most important contributions of Clothes Make the Man is its ability to provoke interest and further research in cross dressing in the Middle Ages.