Defining Science Literacy in General Education Courses for Undergraduate Non-Science Majors
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Published:
Sep 21, 2020
Keywords:
Science Literacy, Undergraduates, General Education, Non-Science Majors
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Abstract
This article describes a project focused on identifying science instructors’ conceptions of science literacy and using these conceptions to develop a brief science literacy student self-assessment (SCILIT). We present the rationale and process we used to elicit instructors’ conceptions of science literacy, crafted in a meaningful way with input by faculty and graduate student science experts. Next, we explain how we developed a novel student SCILIT self-assessment based on those expert conceptions. We describe our initial efforts using SCILIT in undergraduate general education science courses to explore students’ self-perceived science literacy. We discuss the use of SCILIT self-assessment to assess potential progression of students’ self-rated science literacy over the course of an academic term, and how this student self-assessment relates to instructor ratings of academic proficiency and science literacy. Finally, we reflect on the use of SCILIT self-assessment to guide instruction and assessment in general education science courses for non-science majors.
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Vandegrift, E. V., Beghetto, R. A., Eisen, J. S., O’Day, P. M., Raymer, M. G., & Barber, N. C. (2020). Defining Science Literacy in General Education Courses for Undergraduate Non-Science Majors. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 20(2). https://doi.org/10.14434/josotl.v20i2.25640
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References
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Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation, Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261–271.
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Baer, J., & McKool, S. S. (2009). Assessing creativity using the consensual assessment technique. In Handbook of assessment technologies, methods, and applications in higher education. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Beghetto, R. A., & Baxter, J. A. (2012). Exploring student beliefs and understanding in
elementary science and mathematics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49,
942–960. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21018
Birmingham, D., & Barton, A. C. (2013). Putting on a green carnival: Youth taking educated action on socioscientific issues. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51, 286–314. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21127
Bryant, F. B., Kastrup, H., Udo, M., Hislop, N., Shefner, R., & Mallow, J. (2012). Science anxiety, science attitudes, and constructivism: A Binational study. Journal of Science Education and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-012-9404-x
Buehl, M. M., & Alexander, P. A. (2005). Motivation and performance differences in
students’ domain-specific epistemological belief profiles. American Educational
Research Journal, 42, 697–726. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312042004697
Choi, K., Lee, H., Shin, N., Kim, S.-W., & Krajcik, J. (2011). Re-conceptualization of scientific literacy in South Korea for the 21st century. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48, 670–697. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20424
Coil, D., Wenderoth, M. P., Cunningham, M., & Dirks, C. (2010). Teaching the process of science: Faculty perceptions and an effective methodology. CBE Life Sciences Education, 9, 524–535. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.10-01-0005
Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, & Evaluation,, 10. Retrieved from http://www.pareonline.net/pdf/v10n7.pdf (accessed 20 September 2018).
Crouch, C. H., & Mazur, E. (2001). Peer Instruction: Ten years of experience and results. American Journal of Physics, 69, 970. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1374249
Dalkey, N. C., & Helmer, O. (1963). An experimental application of the Delphi method to the use of experts. Management Science, 9, 458–467.
Deboer, G. E. (2000). Scientific literacy: Another look at its historical and contemporary meanings and its relationship to science education reform. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37, 582–601. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2736(200008)37:6<582::AID-TEA5>3.0.CO;2-L
Dunning, D., Heath, C., & Suls, J. M. (2004). Flawed self-assessment implications for health, education, and the workplace. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5, 69–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-1006.2004.00018.x.
Duschl, R. A., Schweingruber, H. A., & Shouse, A. (2007). Taking science to school: Learning and teaching science in grades K-8. (R. A. Duschl, H. A. Schweingruber, & A. Shouse, Eds.). Washington DC: National Academies Press.
Falk, J. H., & Needham, M. D. (2013). Factors contributing to adult knowledge of science and technology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 50, 431–452. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21080
Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 8410–8415. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319030111
Goldsmith, S. T., Trierweiler, A. M., Welch, S. A., Bancroft, A. M., Bargen, Von, J. M., & Carey, A. E. (2013). Transforming a university tradition into a geoscience teaching and learning opportunity for the university community. Journal of Geoscience Education, 61, 280–290.
Gormally, C., Brickman, P., & Lutz, M. (2012). Developing a test of scientific literacy skills (TOSLS): Measuring undergraduates' evaluation of scientific information and arguments. CBE Life Sciences Education, 11, 364–377. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.12-03-0026
Gräber, W., Erdmann, T., & Schlieker, V. (2001). Aiming for scientific literacy through self-regulated learning with the internet, In Science and Technology Education: Preparing Future Citizen. Proceedings of the IOSTE Symposium in Southern Europe, 1–13.
Gross, L. (2006). Scientific illiteracy and the partisan takeover of biology. PLoS biology, 4, e167. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0040167
Handelsman, J., Miller, S., & Pfund, C. (2007). Scientific Teaching. Macmillan.
Hazen, R. M. (2002). Why should you be scientifically literate? ActionBioscience.org.
Hobson, A. (2003). Physics literacy, energy and the environment, Physics Education, 38(2), 1–6.
Holbrook, J., & Rannikmae, M. (2009). The meaning of scientific literacy. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 4, 275–288.
Hungerford, H. R. (2009). Environmental education (EE) for the 21st Century: Where have we been? Where are we now? Where are we headed? The Journal of Environmental Education, 41, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958960903206773
Hurd, P. D. (1998). Scientific literacy: New minds for a changing world. Science Education, 82, 407–416. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199806)82:3<407::AID-SCE6>3.0.CO;2-G
Jack, B. M., Lin, H.-S., & Yore, L. D. (2014). The synergistic effect of affective factors on student learning outcomes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(8), 1084-1101. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21153
Jin, G., & Bierma, T. (2013). STEM for non-STEM enhancing science literacy in large classes. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(6), 20-26.
Karsai, I., & Kampis, G. (2010). The crossroads between biology and mathematics: The scientific method as the basics of scientific literacy. BioScience, 60, 632–638. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2010.60.8.9
Kohut, A., Keeter, S., Doherty, C., & Dimock, M. (2009). Scientific achievements less prominent than a decade ago: Public praises science; scientists fault public, media. Washington, DC: The Pew Research Center
Laugksch, R. C. (2000). Scientific literacy: A conceptual overview. Science Education, 84, 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(200001)84:1<71::AID-SCE6>3.0.CO;2-C
Lee, S., & Roth, W.-M. (2003). Science and the “ Good Citizen ”: Scientific literacy community-based. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 28, 403–424. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243903028003003
Lim, W., Plucker, J. A., & Im, K. (2002). We are more alike than we think we are: Implicit theories of intelligence with a Korean sample. Intelligence, 30, 185–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00097-6
MacKinnon, D. W. (1964). The study of lives. New York: Atherton Press.
Marder, M. (2013). A problem with STEM. CBE Life Sciences Education, 12, 148–150. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.12-12-0209
McCaffrey, M. S., & Buhr, S. M. (2008). Clarifying climate confusion: addressing systemic holes, cognitive gaps, and misconceptions through climate literacy. Physical Geography, 29, 512–528. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3646.29.6.512
Miller, J. D. (2004). Public understanding of, and attitudes toward, scientific research: What we know and what we need to know. Public Understanding of Science, 13, 273–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662504044908
Miller, J. D. (2006). Civic scientific literacy in Europe and the United States. World Association for Public Opinion Research, 17. https://doi.org/10.1088/0963-6625/7/3/001
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Science Literacy: Concepts, Contexts, and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/23595.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2012). The Nation’s Report Card: Science in Action: Hands-On and Interactive Computer Tasks From the 2009 Science Assessment, 1–24.
National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Research Council. (2013). Next Generation Science Standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Science Board. (2012). Science and Engineering Indicators 2012. Arlington VA: National Science Foundation (NSB 12-01).
Nuhfer, E. B., Cogan, C. B., Kloock, C., Wood, G. G., Goodman, A., Delgado, N. Z., & Wheeler, C. W. (2016). Using a concept inventory to assess the reasoning component of citizen-level science literacy: Results from a 17,000-student study. Journal of microbiology & biology education, 17(1), 143. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v17i1.1036
Osborne, J., Simon, S., & Collins, S. (2003). Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implications. International Journal of Science Education, 25, 1049–1079. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069032000032199
O’Connor, B. P. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer’s MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 32, 396–402.
Parkinson, J., & Adendorff, R. (2004). The use of popular science articles in teaching scientific literacy. English for Specific Purposes, 23, 379–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2003.11.005
PCAST. (2012). Engage to excel: Producing one million additional college graduates with degrees in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Presidents Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/pcast-engage-to-excel-final_feb.pdf (Retrieved 15 October 2014).
Pellegrino, J.W. & Hilton, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Education for life and work: developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
PISA, P. F. I. S. A. (2006). Assessing scientific, reading and mathematical literacy, 1–188.
Porter, J. A., Wolbach, K. C., Purzycki, C. B., Bowman, L. A., Agbada, E., & Mostrom, A. M. (2010). Integration of information and scientific literacy: Promoting literacy in undergraduates. CBE Life Sciences Education, 9, 536–542. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.10-01-0006.
Scearce, C. (2007). Scientific literacy. Proquest Discovery Guide.
Schweingruber, H., Keller, T., & Quinn, H. (Eds.). (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. National Academies Press.
Singer, S. R., Nielsen, N.R. & Schweingruber, H.A. (Eds). (2012). Discipline-based education research: Understanding and improving learning in undergraduate science and engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Stage, E. K., Asturias, H., Cheuk, T., Daro, P. A., & Hampton, S. B. (2013). Opportunities and challenges in next generation standards. Science, 340, 276–277. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1234011
Steel, B. S., Smith, C., Opsommer, L., Curiel, S., & Warner-Steel, R. (2005). Public ocean literacy in the United States. Ocean & Coastal Management, 48, 97–114.
Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.49.3.607
Stipek, D. J. (1981). Children's perceptions of their own and their classmates' ability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 404.
Udo, M. K., Ramsey, G. P., & Mallow, J. V. (2004). Science Anxiety and Gender in Students Taking General Education Science Courses. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 13(4), 435–446.
Witte, D., & Beers, K. (2003). Testing of chemical literacy (Chemistry in context in the Dutch National Examinations). Chemical Education International, AN-3, 1–15.
Allen, D., & Tanner, K. (2005). Approaches to biology teaching and learning: From a scholarly approach to teaching to the scholarship of teaching. Cell Biology Education, 4, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.04-11-0052
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (2011). Vision and change in undergraduate biology education: A call to action, final report. Washington DC.
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation, Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261–271.
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Baer, J., & McKool, S. S. (2009). Assessing creativity using the consensual assessment technique. In Handbook of assessment technologies, methods, and applications in higher education. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Beghetto, R. A., & Baxter, J. A. (2012). Exploring student beliefs and understanding in
elementary science and mathematics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49,
942–960. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21018
Birmingham, D., & Barton, A. C. (2013). Putting on a green carnival: Youth taking educated action on socioscientific issues. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51, 286–314. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21127
Bryant, F. B., Kastrup, H., Udo, M., Hislop, N., Shefner, R., & Mallow, J. (2012). Science anxiety, science attitudes, and constructivism: A Binational study. Journal of Science Education and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-012-9404-x
Buehl, M. M., & Alexander, P. A. (2005). Motivation and performance differences in
students’ domain-specific epistemological belief profiles. American Educational
Research Journal, 42, 697–726. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312042004697
Choi, K., Lee, H., Shin, N., Kim, S.-W., & Krajcik, J. (2011). Re-conceptualization of scientific literacy in South Korea for the 21st century. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48, 670–697. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20424
Coil, D., Wenderoth, M. P., Cunningham, M., & Dirks, C. (2010). Teaching the process of science: Faculty perceptions and an effective methodology. CBE Life Sciences Education, 9, 524–535. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.10-01-0005
Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, & Evaluation,, 10. Retrieved from http://www.pareonline.net/pdf/v10n7.pdf (accessed 20 September 2018).
Crouch, C. H., & Mazur, E. (2001). Peer Instruction: Ten years of experience and results. American Journal of Physics, 69, 970. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1374249
Dalkey, N. C., & Helmer, O. (1963). An experimental application of the Delphi method to the use of experts. Management Science, 9, 458–467.
Deboer, G. E. (2000). Scientific literacy: Another look at its historical and contemporary meanings and its relationship to science education reform. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37, 582–601. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2736(200008)37:6<582::AID-TEA5>3.0.CO;2-L
Dunning, D., Heath, C., & Suls, J. M. (2004). Flawed self-assessment implications for health, education, and the workplace. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5, 69–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-1006.2004.00018.x.
Duschl, R. A., Schweingruber, H. A., & Shouse, A. (2007). Taking science to school: Learning and teaching science in grades K-8. (R. A. Duschl, H. A. Schweingruber, & A. Shouse, Eds.). Washington DC: National Academies Press.
Falk, J. H., & Needham, M. D. (2013). Factors contributing to adult knowledge of science and technology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 50, 431–452. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21080
Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 8410–8415. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319030111
Goldsmith, S. T., Trierweiler, A. M., Welch, S. A., Bancroft, A. M., Bargen, Von, J. M., & Carey, A. E. (2013). Transforming a university tradition into a geoscience teaching and learning opportunity for the university community. Journal of Geoscience Education, 61, 280–290.
Gormally, C., Brickman, P., & Lutz, M. (2012). Developing a test of scientific literacy skills (TOSLS): Measuring undergraduates' evaluation of scientific information and arguments. CBE Life Sciences Education, 11, 364–377. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.12-03-0026
Gräber, W., Erdmann, T., & Schlieker, V. (2001). Aiming for scientific literacy through self-regulated learning with the internet, In Science and Technology Education: Preparing Future Citizen. Proceedings of the IOSTE Symposium in Southern Europe, 1–13.
Gross, L. (2006). Scientific illiteracy and the partisan takeover of biology. PLoS biology, 4, e167. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0040167
Handelsman, J., Miller, S., & Pfund, C. (2007). Scientific Teaching. Macmillan.
Hazen, R. M. (2002). Why should you be scientifically literate? ActionBioscience.org.
Hobson, A. (2003). Physics literacy, energy and the environment, Physics Education, 38(2), 1–6.
Holbrook, J., & Rannikmae, M. (2009). The meaning of scientific literacy. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 4, 275–288.
Hungerford, H. R. (2009). Environmental education (EE) for the 21st Century: Where have we been? Where are we now? Where are we headed? The Journal of Environmental Education, 41, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/00958960903206773
Hurd, P. D. (1998). Scientific literacy: New minds for a changing world. Science Education, 82, 407–416. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199806)82:3<407::AID-SCE6>3.0.CO;2-G
Jack, B. M., Lin, H.-S., & Yore, L. D. (2014). The synergistic effect of affective factors on student learning outcomes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(8), 1084-1101. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21153
Jin, G., & Bierma, T. (2013). STEM for non-STEM enhancing science literacy in large classes. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(6), 20-26.
Karsai, I., & Kampis, G. (2010). The crossroads between biology and mathematics: The scientific method as the basics of scientific literacy. BioScience, 60, 632–638. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2010.60.8.9
Kohut, A., Keeter, S., Doherty, C., & Dimock, M. (2009). Scientific achievements less prominent than a decade ago: Public praises science; scientists fault public, media. Washington, DC: The Pew Research Center
Laugksch, R. C. (2000). Scientific literacy: A conceptual overview. Science Education, 84, 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(200001)84:1<71::AID-SCE6>3.0.CO;2-C
Lee, S., & Roth, W.-M. (2003). Science and the “ Good Citizen ”: Scientific literacy community-based. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 28, 403–424. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162243903028003003
Lim, W., Plucker, J. A., & Im, K. (2002). We are more alike than we think we are: Implicit theories of intelligence with a Korean sample. Intelligence, 30, 185–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00097-6
MacKinnon, D. W. (1964). The study of lives. New York: Atherton Press.
Marder, M. (2013). A problem with STEM. CBE Life Sciences Education, 12, 148–150. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.12-12-0209
McCaffrey, M. S., & Buhr, S. M. (2008). Clarifying climate confusion: addressing systemic holes, cognitive gaps, and misconceptions through climate literacy. Physical Geography, 29, 512–528. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3646.29.6.512
Miller, J. D. (2004). Public understanding of, and attitudes toward, scientific research: What we know and what we need to know. Public Understanding of Science, 13, 273–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662504044908
Miller, J. D. (2006). Civic scientific literacy in Europe and the United States. World Association for Public Opinion Research, 17. https://doi.org/10.1088/0963-6625/7/3/001
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Science Literacy: Concepts, Contexts, and Consequences. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/23595.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2012). The Nation’s Report Card: Science in Action: Hands-On and Interactive Computer Tasks From the 2009 Science Assessment, 1–24.
National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Research Council. (2013). Next Generation Science Standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
National Science Board. (2012). Science and Engineering Indicators 2012. Arlington VA: National Science Foundation (NSB 12-01).
Nuhfer, E. B., Cogan, C. B., Kloock, C., Wood, G. G., Goodman, A., Delgado, N. Z., & Wheeler, C. W. (2016). Using a concept inventory to assess the reasoning component of citizen-level science literacy: Results from a 17,000-student study. Journal of microbiology & biology education, 17(1), 143. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v17i1.1036
Osborne, J., Simon, S., & Collins, S. (2003). Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implications. International Journal of Science Education, 25, 1049–1079. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069032000032199
O’Connor, B. P. (2000). SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer’s MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 32, 396–402.
Parkinson, J., & Adendorff, R. (2004). The use of popular science articles in teaching scientific literacy. English for Specific Purposes, 23, 379–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2003.11.005
PCAST. (2012). Engage to excel: Producing one million additional college graduates with degrees in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Presidents Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/pcast-engage-to-excel-final_feb.pdf (Retrieved 15 October 2014).
Pellegrino, J.W. & Hilton, M. L. (Eds.). (2012). Education for life and work: developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
PISA, P. F. I. S. A. (2006). Assessing scientific, reading and mathematical literacy, 1–188.
Porter, J. A., Wolbach, K. C., Purzycki, C. B., Bowman, L. A., Agbada, E., & Mostrom, A. M. (2010). Integration of information and scientific literacy: Promoting literacy in undergraduates. CBE Life Sciences Education, 9, 536–542. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.10-01-0006.
Scearce, C. (2007). Scientific literacy. Proquest Discovery Guide.
Schweingruber, H., Keller, T., & Quinn, H. (Eds.). (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. National Academies Press.
Singer, S. R., Nielsen, N.R. & Schweingruber, H.A. (Eds). (2012). Discipline-based education research: Understanding and improving learning in undergraduate science and engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Stage, E. K., Asturias, H., Cheuk, T., Daro, P. A., & Hampton, S. B. (2013). Opportunities and challenges in next generation standards. Science, 340, 276–277. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1234011
Steel, B. S., Smith, C., Opsommer, L., Curiel, S., & Warner-Steel, R. (2005). Public ocean literacy in the United States. Ocean & Coastal Management, 48, 97–114.
Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.49.3.607
Stipek, D. J. (1981). Children's perceptions of their own and their classmates' ability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 404.
Udo, M. K., Ramsey, G. P., & Mallow, J. V. (2004). Science Anxiety and Gender in Students Taking General Education Science Courses. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 13(4), 435–446.
Witte, D., & Beers, K. (2003). Testing of chemical literacy (Chemistry in context in the Dutch National Examinations). Chemical Education International, AN-3, 1–15.