In Female Song Tradition and the Akan of Ghana, Kwasi Ampene’s primary concern is the re-evaluation of the creative process by shedding “new light on African traditional musical practices through a focus on the processes of oral composition” (14). He focuses on developing a new perspective on preliterate musical forms, as neither wholly traditional nor modern, as not entirely improvised or composed. The author argues that the Akan genre nnwonkoro is re-composed during performance, and argues that this concept of re-composition is fundamental to understanding African oral traditions.
The first chapter is an overview of Akan musical forms, with a particular focus on the history of nnwonkoro. Historically, nnwonkoro was a female recreational genre. Groups were formed informally, and the common themes of the songs were praise, love, and social commentary. Today, nnwonkoro groups are formally constituted, and often perform for a fee at large funerals and state events. Nnwonkoro has been adapted to contemporary contexts, while retaining essential elements of Akan aesthetics. For example, nnwonkoro groups now use microphones and amplifiers to compete with ever-amplified sound spaces, alongside the traditionally-used instruments, afirikyewa (iron bell), single ampentema (conically-shaped membranophone) and the aprepensua (a lamellophone consisting of five low-note metal keys within a large wooden box). Within this chapter, the author identifies how this instrumentation is a major difference between nnwonkoro and other genres of Akan funerary music, such as adowa. The author further introduces the innovations in the genre over time and in new performance contexts.
In chapter 2, Ampene focuses on the motivations for the creative process, highlighting common inspirations of nnwonkoro themes. Among the most common of these inspirations are well-known Ananse spider folktales, dreams, and current events. Ampene emphasizes that nnwonkoro lyrics must reflect a particular event or experience of community members; songs thereby serve an important societal function, rather than being only outlets of individual expression.
Chapter 3 examines three issues within nnwonkoro compositional conventions: 1) the organization of song units into a performance unit, 2) the use of poetic nuances and phonological devices, and 3) the development of metaphor, both through lyrical meaning and embodied in pitch contour. The compositional process entwines both the old and the new; nnwonkoro composers utilize a particular stylistic formula, while re-composing lyrics for certain contexts. Ampene further discusses the use of pitch relationships and rhythmic alignment of text with the timeline as fostering a connection between past and present.
Chapter 4 reinforces the concept of composition within a cultural context, relating the structure and intent of nnwonkoro songs to important Akan rites, such as libations, funerary cries, and jubilation chants. Women’s roles in these ancient rites are quite similar to the roles of nnwonkoro female singers today, illustrating a continuum of gender roles in Akan performance contexts. The value of a performance, argues Ampene, is judged on its ability to incorporate elements of other Akan performance traditions.
Ampene’s writing style follows the tradition of African musicology as developed by J.H. Kwabena Nketia, in that the analysis is from a native cultural perspective, and the focus is primarily on musical and lyrical elements. In the fifth chapter, the author diverges from this approach by adopting an ethnographic tone. Ampene describes the intricate cultural and contextual details of a typical performance of nnwonkoro. The account of a funerary event in this chapter is a shining moment in the book, as Ampene intricately weaves detailed accounts with cultural and contextual meaning. He is particularly adept at interpreting lyrics within the moments of a performance event, and differentiating the occurrence of pre-composition and creativity by nnwonkoro singers.
In chapter 6, Ampene analyzes the involvement of men in the nnwonkoro genre. He suggests that the inclusion of men as patrons and instrumentalists is a necessary innovation. Because of the increased formalization of performance events, women must rely on their male counterparts to handle financial and managerial matters. Akan cultural taboos prevent women from playing many instruments, especially drums. Ampene implies that the involvement of men is a natural balance of gender roles; I would add that this is true within the context of institutionalized Akan gender roles and cultural norms, rather than because of the inability of women to perform these tasks.
In this final chapter, Ampene also explores nnwonkoro groups’ rich use of innovation, as they draw on themes ranging from public health, to Christian theology, to road safety. Due to the widespread popularity of nnwonkoro, songs are sometimes commissioned by organizations such as the Ghana National Highway Authority and UNICEF. In conclusion, Ampene reiterates his primarily functional analysis: “musical composition of the female song tradition of the Akan has a definite social and religious function” (202). It is both the flexibility and the traditionality of nnwonkoro performers that are responsible for its popularity as a musical genre in contemporary Ghana.
Kwasi Ampene’s book is a wealth of information about an Akan female song tradition through transcriptions and translations, as well as musical and lyrical analysis. The examples on the companion CD are helpful for following the musical transcriptions, although a few longer examples would be a welcome addition to the thirty-second clips. This book could also serve as a supplemental text for the Twi student, due to the extensive number of Twi song texts and English translations.
To a great extent, there is a lack of ethnographic literature on women’s music in West Africa. Since the 1980s, a few authors have devoted articles and book chapters to the topic of women’s music in West Africa (for example, Hampton 1982, DjeDje 1985, Agovi 1989, Monts 1989, Anyidoho 1993, Duran 2000). There are also some recent book-length contributions, such as Beverly Mack’s Muslim Women Sing (2004) and Karin Barber’s I Could Speak Until Tomorrow (1991). While these authors have each made meaningful contributions to an understanding of West African women’s music, many genres remain unexplored.
Feminist scholars may not agree with Ampene’s cursory assessment of gender roles and lack of in-depth analysis of issues such as male participation in, and economic control of, a traditionally female genre. The author sidesteps issues such as the inclusion of men in the group as adding to its validity. He further avoids a post-colonial perspective by glossing over the capitalist realities of performance context (Anyidoho 1994). Nonetheless, this text is a significant contribution to a growing body of knowledge of women’s music in West Africa.
In Female Song Tradition and the Akan of Ghana, Kwasi Ampene’s primary objective--to examine the creative compositional process--is its strongest contribution to ethnomusicological scholarship. It is a significant work for scholars interested in compositional processes, particularly within oral traditions. Ampene’s development of the concept of re-composition is fundamental to a clearer understanding of such performance genres.
References Cited
Agovi, Kofi. 1989. “Sharing Creativity: Group Performance of Nzema Ayabomo Maiden Songs.” The Literary Griot. 1(2): 1-43.
Anyidoho, Akosua. 1993. “Gender and Language Use: The Case of Two Akan Verbal Art Forms.” Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Texas at Austin.
________. 1994. “Tradition and Innovation in Nnwonkoro, an Akan Female Verbal Genre.” Research in African Literatures. 25(3): 141-159.
Barber, Karin. 1991. I Could Speak Until Tomorrow: Oriki, Women, and the Past in a Yoruba Town. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Dje Dje, Jacqueline Cogdell. 1985. “Women and Music in Sudanic Africa.” More than Drumming: Essays on African and Afro-Latin American Music and Musicians. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
Duran, Lucy. 2000. “Women, Music, and the ‘Mystique’ of Hunters in Mali.” The African Diaspora: A Musical Perspective. Edited by Ingrid Monson. New York: Routledge.
Hampton, Barbara. 1982. “Music and Ritual Symbolism in the Ga Funeral.” Yearbook for Traditional Music. 14: 75-105.
Mack, Beverly M. 2004. Muslim Women Sing: Hausa Popular Song. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Monts, Lester P. 1989. “Vai Women’s Roles in Music, Masking, and Ritual Performance.” African Musicology: Current Trends. Edited by Jacqueline Cogdell DjeDje and William G. Carter. Los Angeles: UCLA African Studies Center.
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[Review length: 1308 words • Review posted on June 21, 2007]