Over the past few decades the phenomenon of cultural identity and its maintenance has become a major focus of researchers in several disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, religious studies, and folklife studies, where the on-the-ground relationships among people are of paramount concern. This is not surprising in the context of constant social and economic upheaval, where the need for grounding and tradition, however manifested, takes a central place in thinking. Jennifer Snook (Sociology, University of Mississippi) has undertaken her study of the American branch of Heathenism in this well-written and carefully documented work in that spirit of searching for identity and finding it in a specific new religious movement (NRM) that has been little studied. Her reasons for this research are both professional and personal, as she self-identifies as a Heathen, and the reflexive nature of her ethnography shows this to be an important feature of the work she has done. When we bring up the old etic/emic distinction (outsider/insider) in ethnographic reportage, we generally refer to voice or method rather than position--how the ethnographer presents the material at hand, rather than whether the ethnographer is literally a part of the community studied. In this case Snook is an insider, at least within one branch of Heathenism (there are several), which gives her both access to community life that others might not have (although she is careful not to give away secrets) and nuanced insight into the tensions and contradictions that are an inevitable part of living in an NRM and in American society simultaneously.
Snook begins her narrative by examining her own journey into Heathenism, a still small religious movement based in revival of pre-Christian Northern European belief and ritual, from Christianity through Wicca and into her present community. It was not an easy course, with issues of self-doubt, isolation, and unsavory people along the way. However, her description forms a useful backdrop and comparison to the journeys of others who arrived in sometimes similar, sometimes different ways. Both the larger Judeo-Christian cultural tradition and other neo-pagan religious movements, especially Wicca and Druidism, became for many both entry points and ways of defining what Heathenism is and is not. Much of the boundary maintenance that defines who is Heathen and what is Heathen is derived from the contrasts made by individuals who describe their lives within these other traditions as unsatisfying, or not in tune with their political and social beliefs. While Christianity provides a major foil for distinctions, other neo-pagan religions are given considerable critique by practitioners for the perceived differences in political stance, sexual practices, standards for gender behavior, use of inauthentic ritual, and ethnic inclusiveness. Heathens often see themselves as more conservative than Wiccans, as well as more “authentic” in their attempts to reconstruct past belief systems and rituals. In fact, much invective is reserved for those neo-pagan groups that outsiders might place under the same umbrella, revealing a pattern of boundary maintenance familiar to many researchers of distancing oneself from those who are most alike.
While identity is a key theme, Snook devotes considerable space to the nature of belief and ritual in Heathenism. Some Heathens do extensive research into the Norse sagas and other works in order to arrive at a more satisfying reconstruction of Heathen practice, although others are less fastidious, and include elements of other neo-pagan traditions or pop culture fantasies about Norse religion in their beliefs. The emphasis on exacting reconstruction extends to the exclusion of Unverified Personal Gnosis (UPG) or revelation in the working out of an appropriate Heathen lifestyle. How specific individuals or groups feel about construction vs. reconstruction, universalist vs. folkish definition (with elements of racial exclusion), and other issues leads Snook to an extended discussion of the divisions within Heathenism. Such disagreements have led to the creation of separate organizations (not mutually exclusive), including the Ásatrú Alliance, the Ásatrú Folk Assembly, and the Troth, each subscribing to a different constellation of beliefs centered around both religious and political/social interests, with some more conservative than others. Thus, even within what to the outsider is a small community, there is internal strife that divides practitioners.
These divisions are found in person, but have been exacerbated by far-flung online practitioners, often isolated individuals (or individuals who prefer physical isolation), who nevertheless express their opinions in blogs and bring both diversity and a sense of a larger community to otherwise local groups. Snook takes great advantage of the Internet in her research, interviewing distant individuals and searching public blogs for useful insights. As an insider she also allows herself the freedom to provide honest critique of some aspects of Heathen practice that might not be taken well if suggested by outsiders, especially in the areas of gender roles and racial attitudes. In sum, Snook’s research is a valuable contribution to the new religious movement literature, and should find a most appreciative audience.
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[Review length: 809 words • Review posted on September 13, 2016]