As is clear from the title, this book fits into a lineage of oral narrative studies that began with the classic research of Milman Parry and Albert Lord and developed through the work of the late John Miles Foley (to whose memory the present volume is dedicated). And just as in Lord’s work, the focus is not so much on the singers of the tales but rather on that which is sung and how it is sung. Within this context, Alison Tokita’s book is distinctive in a number of ways. First, by focusing specifically on Japan, it applies oral-formulaic theory to the Japanese case and simultaneously, if inadvertently, introduces Japanese scholarship (e.g., the work of Hy?do Hiromi) into the English-language discourse on the subject. Secondly, as is also evident from the title, Tokita ambitiously sets out to chart continuities and changes in performance diachronically through ten centuries, suggesting that “despite the apparently discrete nature of the individual genres, it is possible to identify a continuous tradition of musically performed narrative in Japan from the tenth to the twentieth centuries” (2). And finally, Tokita focuses not only on the verbal elements of oral performance but also, critically, on the musical elements, an aspect of oral-formulaic theory that has generally not received a great deal of attention. In this regard, Tokita suggests that “formulaic expression in the verbal and musical aspects of the narrative is analogical, but not directly parallel” (19).
In the introduction to the book, Tokita outlines her broad objectives, explains different forms of performed narrative (strophic, stichic, and prosimetric), and introduces two distinct but connected “narrative strands” that she calls “soft” (“with a strong Buddhist flavour,” related to salvation, suffering, etc.) and “hard” (“focusing on valorous warrior exploits,” etc.) (9). She also provides a brief explanation of katarimono—a broad category she describes as “Japanese narratives which are sung in performance” (2)—followed by a historical overview of the genres of katarimono she covers in the text.
Each succeeding chapter focuses on a single one of these genres, placing it into historical context, reviewing critical literature, and providing a detailed musical analysis. The specific genres, whether hard or soft or a mixture of both, demonstrate varying degrees of musical and narrative complexity. For each one, Tokita selects a specific example (complete with musical transcription and the narrative text in Japanese with English translation) which she carefully analyzes in terms of both musical structure and narrative content. All her examples are contained on a CD included with the book.
She begins with two early genres that are quite different from each other but are both of “foundational importance for later narratives” (54). The first one, the focus of chapter 2, is an explicitly Buddhist performance genre known as k?shiki; she explains the musicological aspects of the form as well as its profoundly Buddhist narrative elements. Chapter 3 focuses on a more secular (though still Buddhist-influenced) genre: the recitation of Japan’s most famous warrior tale, Heike monogatari (The Tale of the Heike), which Tokita describes as “the most significant of all the Japanese performed narratives to survive to the present from medieval times” (53). Indeed, for most readers familiar with Japanese oral and literary traditions, this chapter will contain material that is most accessible and perhaps even relevant to undergraduate teaching. In addition to close musical and formal analysis, Tokita historicizes the tale itself, as well as the way it has been understood within discourses of literature, orality, and musicality.
The next several chapters take the reader into narrative and musical forms that are more multi-dimensional—“bringing visual (kinetic) and rhythmic dance elements to the fore” (91). Chapter 4 focuses on two related but different genres from the medieval period: k?waka mai, an orally inflected narrative dance form that was once extremely popular but is now performed in only one location once a year; and n?, a dramatic form with a highly developed literary aesthetic that today is one of the most famous (and still practiced) of Japan’s traditional performing arts. Chapter 5 moves into the early modern period (Edo period; c.1603-1867) to explore the rise of j?ruri, “a cluster of genres of musical narrative” (133) performed with the accompaniment of a shamisen, that became closely associated with the puppet theater (now known as bunraku). Tokita outlines the historical connections between the musical recitation aspects of j?ruri and the puppet theater; she also provides an interesting exploration here of the relationship between the oral and written aspects of this performance form.
J?ruri and bunraku were both very much connected with the development of the kabuki theater, which is the focus of chapters 6 and 7. Specifically, Tokita discusses the emergence and complex structures of two forms of kabuki dance music: bungo-kei j?ruri and nagauta. She also explores narrative and lyrical song forms, and the role of dance and memetic performance in kabuki. And as with all her chapters, she illustrates her broader points with close musical analyses of several examples.
This book is a substantial achievement from a scholar who has clearly been steeped in this material for some years; as such, it will be of interest to ethnomusicologists in particular and, to a certain extent, to folklorists working on oral narrative. With its abundance of details and technical information, however, it is not an easy book to read. There is continuity between chapters and Tokita does make some overarching points, but each chapter delves deeply into the structures of a specific genre, and the book as a whole is certainly not introductory in nature. Its greatest value is, perhaps, as a reference for anybody somewhat familiar with particular genres but interested in more deeply understanding their musical structures.
I should also note that Tokita introduces numerous important Japanese terms, genres, performers, and titles. Much of this vocabulary is highly specialized; even for a reader with a background in Japanese literature, drama, or folklore, the terminology can be difficult to follow. Given the book’s value as a reference source, then, one helpful addition would have been a glossary, complete with Japanese characters and a brief explanation for each of the specialized words she introduces. Unfortunately, the lack of a glossary will have readers constantly flipping back and forth between the index and the first use in the text.
In short, Tokita’s project is complex and ambitious in terms of history, narrative, and music—with much of this material being unpacked for the first time in English. While the literary and historical elements she describes are useful for grasping broader cultural contexts, to my mind her cultural analysis of texts is of secondary importance; the more valuable part of each chapter is her detailed parsing of musicological elements and structures. The volume will certainly be accessed by scholars of Japanese traditional music and performance, and used as a resource for those of us who teach Japanese folklore, literature, and drama. But I also hope that specialists in the music and oral narrative of other regions will make the effort to wade through the historical and linguistic specifics to seek insights for cross-cultural conversation.
--------
[Review length: 1178 words • Review posted on October 31, 2017]