Master's Theses
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Item Acute Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Ocular-Motor Function as Assessed by King-Devick Test Performance([Bloomington, Ind.] : Indiana University, 2018-06) Coon, Sarah; Kawata, KeisukeLess than 10% of high school and college student-athletes obtain the recommended amount of sleep each night. Ocular-motor function, specifically saccade movement, is known to be negatively affected by sleep deprivation. The King-Devick Test is a concussion assessment tool that measures neurocognitive and saccadic function. However, how one’s King-Devick Test performance is affected by sleep deprivation remains unknown. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effects of sleep deprivation on ocular-motor function as assessed by the King-Devick Test. We hypothesized that those who were sleep deprived would have an increased, or worsened time performance in the King-Devick Test compared to those in the control group. Forty-two college-aged subjects (18-26 years old) who regularly slept 7-9 hours per night and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision were recruited in the study. Exclusion criteria were any sleep disorders or neurocognitive dysfunctions, and pregnant females. Participants were randomly assigned to one of 2 groups: control and sleep deprivation. One week prior to testing, participants were fitted with an ActiGraph and given a sleep log to objectively and subjectively record sleep durations, respectively. There were 3 test sessions with 1 intervention over a 24-hour period: Test 1 (7am), Test 2 (7pm), overnight sleep intervention, Test 3 (7am). King-Devick measurements of time in seconds and cumulative errors made were recorded for each test session. Individuals in the sleep deprivation group underwent sleep restriction of 3.5 hours during the intervention while the control group slept 8 hours. A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to identify a significant time by group interaction as well as main effect for time. Further investigation using Bonferroni post-hoc testing allowed insight to the significant difference(s) that occurred. Data were analyzed using SPSS Statistics Version 23 and level of statistical significance was set to P< 0.05. The repeated measures analysis of variance showed that there was a statistically significant Group x Time interaction for King-Devick speed, [F(1.7,67.6)=8.840, p=0.001], and showed significant main effect for time [F(1.7,67.6)=12.736, p <0.001]. Bonferroni post-hoc analysis revealed that the control group continued to improve their saccadic performance over time [Time 1 (42.0$\pm$4.4), Time 2 (40.2$\pm$4.2), Time 3 (38.4$\pm$4.2); Time 1 vs. 2, p<0.001; Time 1 vs. 3, p<0.001; Time 2 vs. 3, p=0.028], while such improvement was not seen in the sleep deprivation group after acute sleep deprivation [Time 1 (41.3$\pm$5.8), Time 2 (38.7$\pm$6.0), Time 3 (40.9$\pm$7.3): Time 1 vs. 2, p<0.001; Time 1 vs. 3, p=1.00; Time 2 vs. 3, p=0.002]. In conclusion, acute sleep deprivation mitigates learning effect seen in the control group, indicating that acute sleep deprivation may cause substantial decrease in neuro-ophthalmologic efficiency. Sleep deprivation negatively impacts ocular-motor function, specifically saccadic movement, as illustrated by regressing expected learning curve in the King-Devick perfromance in the sleep deprivation group. Relying on saccades and cognitive function, the King-Devick Test is a commonly used concussion assessment tool. The result has an immense clinical implication because administering the King-Devick Test to someone in a sleep deprived condition may falsify the results. A baseline test could be inaccurately high which, when compared to a post-injury result, may create a false negative. Further, a post-injury test in a sleep deprived condition may increase the performance time even in the absence of a concussion leading to a false positive.Item Acute Subconcussive Effect on Plasma Neurofilament Light Polypeptide in Collegiate Soccer Players([Bloomington, Ind.] : Indiana University, 2018-06) Wirsching, Angela; Kawata, KeisukeResearch continues to allude to the efficacy of using blood biomarkers as tools to detect brain parenchymal damage in the periphery of the body. While emerging evidence supports the use of neurofilament light polypeptide (NF-L) as a specific blood biomarker of cerebral trauma, the cogency of its use with respect to repetitive subconcussive head impacts remains elusive. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effects of subconcussive head impacts on plasma NF-L levels in the collegiate soccer cohort. To be considered for inclusion, participants were required to have at least three years of soccer heading experience and be between the ages of 18 and 26. Conversely, participants were excluded if they had a history of head injury during one year prior to the study or a history of neurological disorders. In effort to test our central hypothesis that plasma levels of NF-L will increase in proportion to the amount of subconcussive head impact experienced, thirty-four participants were distributed between kicking-control and heading groups and assessed at four time points (pre-intervention, 0h-post, 2h-post, and 24h-post intervention). At each time point, a blood sample was collected from each participant. Between the pre- intervention and the 0h-post time point, each participant completed an intervention based on random group assignment. Participants in the heading group performed 10 soccer headers, while the kicking-control group performed 10 kicks. The ball was released by a JUGS machine approximately 40 feet from the participant at a speed of 25mph, inducing an average force of about 30g, similar to that of a long-throw during a soccer game, in one-minute intervals. Our results support previous findings that NF-L expression markedly increases in proportion to subconcussive head impacts cumulatively, with a significant increase at 24h post-heading. Subconcussive head impacts gradually increased plasma NF-L expression, as illustrated by a significant time by group interaction, F(1, 31) = 9.17, p = 0.0049, while the kicking-control group remain consistent throughout the study time points. A significant difference was revealed at 24h post-heading (3.68 $\pm$ 0.30 pg/mL) compared to pre-heading (3.12 $\pm$ 0.29 pg/mL, p = 0.0013; Cohen’s d = 1.898). The heading group (3.68 $\pm$ 0.30 pg/mL) showed a significantly higher level of plasma NF-L than the kicking-control group (2.97 $\pm$ 0.24 pg/mL: p = 0.038: Fig 1). There are two chief findings from this study: 1) There was no significant increase in NF-L expression until the 24h post-heading assessment in the heading group and 2) NF-L expression remained consistent across all time points in the kicking-control group. These findings suggest potential for cumulative effects of subconcussive head impacts. As research continues to reflect the negative neurocognitive effects of subconcussive head impacts, it is imperative that a gold standard for determining diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis is established. Our study further supports the efficacy of using biomarkers, specifically NF-L, in the triage and management of brain injuries.Item ALTERED VERTICAL GROUND REACTION FORCES FOUND IN PARTICIPANTS WITH CHRONIC ANKLE INSTABILITY DURING RUNNING(2014-05) Bigouette, John PaulAltered gait kinematics and kinetics have been examined in subjects with chronic ankle instability (CAI). Altered vertical ground reaction forces (GRF) have been found in individuals with CAI compared to control subjects, in different movement patterns but not running. Running is a common component of numerous sporting events where ankle sprains occur. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if subjects with CAI produced altered vertical GRF compared to uninjured subjects while running. Specifically, we examined if differences existed in impact peak forces, time to the impact peak force, active peak forces, time to the active peak force and average loading rate between groups. Twenty-four subjects with previous running experience were recruited from a Midwestern community. Subjects were determined to have CAI if they met the following criteria: (1) a history of at least one self-reported lateral ankle sprain that occurred 12 months prior to study enrollment, (2) a history of recurrent sprains or feelings of “giving way” during functional activity, (3) a score of 11 or higher on the Identification of Functional Ankle Instability (IdFAI) Questionnaire. Control subjects had no history of lateral ankle sprains. All subjects were required to be active runners and rear foot strikers. Also, subjects had no previous lower extremity injuries in the last three months besides a lateral ankle sprain for the CAI group. All subjects had no history of fractures or surgeries to the lower extremities. Active runners were defined as consistently running for the past year, running at least three times per week and averaging a minimum of twenty miles per week. Testing took place on an instrumented treadmill. Each subject was given an opportunity to complete his or her pre-run stretching routine following a five minute warm-up and before the testing trial. During the testing trial, subjects ran at a standardized speed trial of 3.3 ms-1 for five minutes. Data was collected during the last 30 seconds of the trial period at 1200 Hz. Five consecutive GRF curves of the test ankle from the last 15 seconds of the data were identified and processed with a fourth order Butterworth filter and a custom written formula in R program to identify the dependent variables. A total of 13 control subjects and 11 subjects with CAI were included for statistical analysis. We found that subjects with CAI produced significantly higher impact peak forces, active peak forces, average loading rate and a shorter time to the active peak force compared to controls. No significant difference was found in the time to impact peak force between groups. The results of this study indicated that individuals with CAI produced altered kinetic variables compared to control subjects. Improper foot position at heel strike and strength deficits in the tibialis anterior could increase the impact peak force by striking the ground harder. Increased loading rates found in individuals with CAI could predispose individuals to lower extremity stress fractures and long-term complications such as osteoarthritis of the ankle joint. Overall, results of the study found that individuals with subjects with CAI produce altered GRFs than uninjured subjects while running.Item AN ANALYSIS OF BOC EXAM FIRST-ATTEMPT PASS RATES IN ATHLETIC TRAINING PROFESSIONAL PROGRAMS(2014-05) Phegley, NicoleWhen assessing athletic training professional programs (PPs) today, the main goal of the program is to prepare students to join the healthcare profession as certified athletic trainers. The elimination of the internship route-to-certification in 2004, meant in order to sit for the Board of Certification examination (BOC exam), a student had to complete an undergraduate professional program (UPP) or graduate professional program (GPP). Since this change, there has been minimal research looking at the characteristic differences between UPPs and GPPs. There has also been little research comparing BOC exam pass rates between candidates from these two types of PPs. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was 1) to determine how BOC exam first-attempt pass rates compare between UPPs and GPPs; and 2) to determine what personnel differences exist between UPP and GPP’s program directors (PDs), faculty, and athletic training students. We used entire population, 365 PP (338 UPPs and 27 GPPs), to compare BOC exam first-attempt pass rates between UPPs and GPPs. We also collected 3-year aggregated BOC exam first-attempt pass rates for all PP from the Commission on Accreditation of Athletic Training Education (CAATE) website. We used the Athletic Training Program and Program Director Survey (ATPPDS) to collect the PP personnel data. 133 program directors (66 females, 67 males; 121 UPPs, 12 GPPs; 36% response rate) from each of the ten NATA districts (districts 1-10 respectively: 5, 13, 22, 28, 15, 6, 6, 9, 22, 7) completed the ATPPDS. The ATPPDS was a web-based survey (Qualtrics.com), comprised of 26 questions (12 multiple choice—select single answer, 2 multiple choice—select all answers that apply, and 12 fill-in answer). Data was collected during two separate, four-week periods allowing more opportunities for the PDs to complete the survey. We predicted there would be a significant difference between UPPs and GPPs for 1) BOC exam first-attempt pass rates; 2) program director characteristics; 3) faculty When assessing athletic training professional programs (PPs) today, the main goal of the program is to prepare students to join the healthcare profession as certified athletic trainers. The elimination of the internship route-to-certification in 2004, meant in order to sit for the Board of Certification examination (BOC exam), a student had to complete an undergraduate professional program (UPP) or graduate professional program (GPP). Since this change, there has been minimal research looking at the characteristic differences between UPPs and GPPs. There has also been little research comparing BOC exam pass rates between candidates from these two types of PPs. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was 1) to determine how BOC exam first-attempt pass rates compare between UPPs and GPPs; and 2) to determine what personnel differences exist between UPP and GPP’s program directors (PDs), faculty, and athletic training students. We used entire population, 365 PP (338 UPPs and 27 GPPs), to compare BOC exam first-attempt pass rates between UPPs and GPPs. We also collected 3-year aggregated BOC exam first-attempt pass rates for all PP from the Commission on Accreditation of Athletic Training Education (CAATE) website. We used the Athletic Training Program and Program Director Survey (ATPPDS) to collect the PP personnel data. 133 program directors (66 females, 67 males; 121 UPPs, 12 GPPs; 36% response rate) from each of the ten NATA districts (districts 1-10 respectively: 5, 13, 22, 28, 15, 6, 6, 9, 22, 7) completed the ATPPDS. The ATPPDS was a web-based survey (Qualtrics.com), comprised of 26 questions (12 multiple choice—select single answer, 2 multiple choice—select all answers that apply, and 12 fill-in answer). Data was collected during two separate, four-week periods allowing more opportunities for the PDs to complete the survey. We predicted there would be a significant difference between UPPs and GPPs for 1) BOC exam first-attempt pass rates; 2) program director characteristics; 3) faculty characteristics; and 4) athletic training students characteristics. An independent t-test analysis revealed a statistically significant difference between the UPPs and GPPs’ BOC exam first-attempt pass rates. GPPs had a higher aggregated pass rate (t(38)=-3.88, p=.01). We identified no significant differences for PD characteristics for education-levels (p=.08) and PD route-to- certification (p=.64) between UPPs and GPPs. We found that 60% of the PDs from UPPs had a terminal degree compared to 83% of the PDs from GPPs. The route-to-certification results that fifty-one percent of UPP PDs and 58% of GPP PDs obtained their credential from the internship route-to-certification. We identified no significant difference between UPPs and GPPs in regards to the number of full time faculty, the number of adjunct faculty with no clinical responsibility, and the number of adjunct faculty with clinical responsibility. We identified a significant difference between UPPs and GPPs for the number of athletic training students in the program (t(131)=2.31, p=.02) and graduating cohort average GPA (t(113)=-4.55, p=.01). We identified no significant difference for the graduating cohort size (t(131)=.464, p=.64). When students pass the BOC exam it means they are prepared to enter the profession as entry-level athletic trainers. Based on the single element that GPPs had a larger percentage of students passing the BOC exam on the first-attempt, these students were better prepared to pass the BOC exam and better prepared to enter the profession. This finding should provide support to the current education reform discussions on whether GPPs should be the sole route-to-certification for the athletic training profession.Item ANGULAR MOMENTUM TRANSFERS IN BASEBALL PITCHINGBetzel, RichardThis study calculated the angular momentum acquired from the ground and its transfers between body segments during a baseball pitch. Seven Division I baseball pitchers were filmed with three high-speed video cameras while they threw maximum effort fastballs from a regulation mound. From the video data, three-dimensional locations of select body landmarks and joint centers were calculated. These three-dimensional data, along with data obtained from anthropomorphic models, were used to calculate angular momentum about three orthogonal axes that translated with each subject’s center of mass during the baseball pitch. A fourth axis was defined post hoc, aligned with the angular momentum vector of the right arm-and-ball at the time of release. The angular momentum of each segment group was projected onto this axis during the entire trial. A composite trial of the seven subjects was generated. Angular momentum values about the projection axis were small until approximately 0.200 s before the onset of double-support. After this instant, the system experienced a large influx of angular momentum, so that by the beginning of double-support the pitcher had already acquired about three quarters of the angular momentum that he would have at release (210 73 mm s-1 out of 278 30 mm s-1). During double-support the remaining quarter of angular momentum was generated. Additionally, during the later part of double-support the angular momentum associated with motions of the right leg, trunk-and-head, and left arm was transferred to the right arm-and-ball, thereby contributing to its velocity and to the velocity of the ball at release.Item ASSESING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE STIRRUP, HORSESHOE, HEEL-LOCK, AND FIGURE-8 COMPONENTS OF THE CLOSED BASKET-WEAVE ANKLE TAPING METHOD IN VARIOUS COMBINATIONS.(2011-05) Peters, JustinaThe purpose of this study was: 1.) to assess the effectiveness of the four individual components of the closed basket-weave ankle taping method (stirrups, horseshoes, heel-locks, figure-8’s) in limiting range of motion immediately following application; 2.) to determine which combination of the four individual components was most effective for limiting range of motion immediately following application. Twenty healthy participants (8 males/12 females, 19.8 ± 1.7 years, height = 172.5 ± 10.3cm, weight = 70.0 ± 12.7kg) from a large Midwestern University volunteered for this study. An ankle electrogoniometer was used to measure ankle range of motion in all four directions (eversion, inversion, dorsiflexion, plantarflexion). All testing took place in one session and used the participants’ dominant leg. Prior to testing, the participants’ leg was cleaned, shaved, and free of open wounds. Initially, range of motion was measured for all four motions in the no tape condition. Then each of the 8 tape conditions was applied to the ankle in a counterbalanced order. After each tape application range of motion was re-tested. Testing was concluded with a final range of motion measurement in the no tape condition. Three trials were taken for each of the four motions; the mean of the three trials was used for analysis. A paired samples t-test was conducted on the beginning and ending no tape measurements to determine if a natural increase in ankle range of motion occurred over the testing session. Four separate repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted for each range of motion to determine a difference between the 9 taping conditions. The results indicated a significant decrease in ankle range of motion with the application of tape when compared to the no tape range of motion value. It was found that the stirrup (SU), heel-lock (HL), and figure-8 (F8) components of the closed basketweave ankle taping method significantly restricted inversion, dorsiflexion, and plantarflexion. On the contrary it was found that the horseshoe (HS) component did not significantly restrict ankle range of motion for any of the four ranges of motion. Further interpretation of results showed that the HL/F8 combination was as effective as the SU/HL/F8 and the CBW taping combinations. The findings of this research indicate that the horseshoe component could be removed from the closed basketweave ankle taping method due to its inability to effectively restrict ankle range of motion. Furthermore, the findings of this research indicate the HL/F8 ankle taping method is equally as effective as the three component taping method (SU/HL/F8) and the full, four component closed basketweave.Item ASSOCIATION BETWEEN FRESHMAN RESIDENCE AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY(2014-04) Marker-Hoffman, Rickie LeePurpose: To examine the relationship between freshman residence and physical activity behaviors on Indiana University’s Bloomington campus (IUB). Methods: A random sample of freshman (n=1200) were sent an email including a URL link to a web-based survey to assess their physical activity behaviors during the 2013 spring semester. Additional emails were sent via Listservs through instructors of some identified classes with freshman attendees. First year eligible students (taking ≥ 12 credit hours, living on campus, non-collegiate athletes) were asked to complete the survey for the opportunity to win a $50 gift to iTunes. Demographic variables including age, weight and height [in order to calculate body mass index (BMI)], vehicle on campus, and major were collected. Other variables assessed were related to campus residence and physical activity behaviors, including minutes per week of moderate and vigorous physical activity, active transportation, and fitness facility usage. Results: Eighty-eight students completed the survey. Overall, 68.8% of students met the physical activity guidelines for moderate and vigorous physical activity and nearly 70% were of a healthy weight. There was no significant difference between mean minutes of physical activity by neighborhood and insufficient statistical power to detect a significant difference by residence hall at p<0.05. Frequency of fitness facility usage was correlated with VPA (r = 0.284, p = 0.007) and at least half of the residence halls were located further than 0.25 miles away from a campus provided fitness facility. Conclusion: Neighborhood does not seem to be associated with physical activity participation. A statistically significant relationship could not be ascertained by residence hall due to inadequate sample size. Future research should include obtaining a larger sample size and further analysis of additional social and environmental factors.Item BALANCE AND FALL RISK ASSESSMENT IN ADULT HABITUAL YOGA PRACTITIONERS(2016-05) Mills, EricaBackground: Postural control in a functioning human is highly complex and dynamic. The main functional goals, postural orientation and postural equilibrium, decline as a person ages. As a result, unintentional falls occur frequently in ostensibly normal older adults and the falls are one of the leading causes of fatal and nonfatal injuries in individuals over the age of 55 years. A hypothesized fall prevention mechanism that has become more available and popular in the United States is the practice of yoga. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether or not the habitual practice of yoga alters balance measures and associated fall risks. If so, then the practice of yoga is justified as a preventative measure for unintentional falls in adults. Methods: Forty, apparently healthy individuals between the ages of 55-70 years of age were recruited to complete the study. Twenty-one of the subjects were recruited based on their participation in yoga for at least eight weeks for a minimum of three times per week. The remaining nineteen subjects were recruited based on their lack of enrollment in yoga classes, and placed in the control group. Each subject completed a survey of health history (including fall history and the Falls Self-Efficacy Scale-International) and yoga participation characteristics to determine subject eligibility. Upon arrival to the testing site, subject’s height and weight was measured. Next, subjects were asked daily activity pattern questions based on the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire to determine an estimated daily metabolic equivalent above basal metabolic rate. Balance measures were then taken through use of the Balance Evaluation Systems Test (BESTest). Once all testing was complete, subjects received a review of their performance measures. Data was analyzed using a 2-tailed t-test with a priori alpha set at p < 0.05 for each dependent variable. A univariate analysis of variance was performed to determine any effect of yoga participation duration, types of yoga practiced, and age on balance performance and the FES-I total score. Results: The BESTest total score of the yoga practitioners (94.66% ± 3.54) was significantly higher than that of the control group (89.43% ± 4.06, P < 0.001). Specifically, the sections of the BESTest that the yoga practitioners had significantly higher scores than the control group were biomechanical constraints (14 ± 0.89, 13 ± 0.88), transitions/anticipatory postural control (17.24 ± 1.22, 16.11 ± 1.20), sensory orientation (14.81 ± 0.40, 13.89 ± 1.10), and stability in gate (19.71 ± 0.90, 18.32 ± 1.42). This difference persisted though the group activity levels, as measured by the GPAQ, were not statistically different between groups (P > 0.05). The FES-I total score and the number of claimed falls in the past twelve months were not significantly different between groups, mainly due to the younger age of the subjects (61.12±4.15 years and 59.60±2.99 years for the yoga group and the control group, respectively) in comparison to high fall-risk seniors (>70 years old.) No significant relationship was determined between the duration of habitual of yoga, types of yoga practiced, and age on balance performance and the FES-I total score Conclusion: This study shows that there is a significantly improved balance score for individuals, between 55 and 70 years old, who habitually practice yoga, as determined by the Balance Evaluation Systems Test.Item Changes in Running Gait Complexity During a Cross-Country Season in Collegiate Runners([Bloomington, Ind.] : Indiana University, 2018-06) Vollmar, Jacob E.; Gruber, Allison H.Center of mass (COM) acceleration complexity has been shown to decrease during a single fatiguing run. However, no studies have investigated how COM acceleration complexity changes over the course of a running training program and before the onset of a running related overuse injury (RROI). The purpose of the present study was to observe if the COM acceleration complexity of collegiate cross-country athletes over the course of their season training changed prior onset of a RROI. Thirty athletes wore a triaxial, research grade accelerometer secured over the posterior aspect of their pelvis during all continuous training runs. The accelerometers were worn for the entire cross-country season. Participants completed a daily online survey to report any musculoskeletal pain or injuries. An RROI was assessed by a trainer and defined as any musculoskeletal pain or problem that resulted in a reduction or stoppage of normal training. Control entropy (CE) analysis was used to assess the complexity of the resultant COM acceleration collected by the wearable accelerometer. Participants who developed a RROI and matched (by gender and age) uninjured controls were compared. Seven participants developed a RROI. No change in COM acceleration complexity was seen prior to the diagnosed RROI (p = 0.64). The unchanged COM acceleration complexity may be explained by similar training workloads between start of the season and immediately prior to RROI onset (p = 0.20).Item CHARACTERIZING LEAD EXPOSURE IN HOUSEHOLDS THAT DEPEND ON PRIVATE WELLS FOR DRINKING WATER([Bloomington, Ind.] : Indiana University, 2022-05) Alde, Alyson; Gibson, Jacqueline MacDonald; Kamendulis, Lisa; Weigel, MargaretEvidence accumulated over the past several decades indicates that there is no safe level of exposure to lead for young children. Although the Safe Drinking Water Act has safety measures in place to maintain the safety of municipal water supplies, no such protection exists for private wells. Recent research suggests U.S. children relying on private well water may be at increased risk from lead exposure compared to those with access to a regulated community water supply. However, no prior studies have investigated this risk through concurrent collection of water and blood samples to test for associations between lead in water and lead in blood. To assess these associations, we collected blood and water samples from 89 participants in North Carolina homes relying on private wells for their drinking water. We also collected dust samples to account for the potential risk of exposure to lead from paint and from lead-containing dirt tracked into the home. All environmental samples were analyzed for lead using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. A multivariable regression was performed to examine the association between well water and blood lead, controlling for lead in dust and other factors that may be associated with lead exposure risk. We found that although water lead levels were not directly associated with blood lead, use of a water filter was associated with a decrease of 32% in blood lead (p<0.05). Additionally, use of a filter was significantly associated with a decreased risk of the occurrence of high lead levels drinking water (p=0.01). Furthermore, we found significant racial disparities in access to water filters. Among participants identifying as African American or Native American, 38% had a water filter, compared to 83% of those identifying as other races (p<0.001). This study highlights that those who get their drinking water from a private well and do not filter their water may be at increased risk of exposure to lead. Further research will be required to understand the association more fully between lead exposure and well water, with a focus on communities who do not have access to water filters.Item Characterizing Student Motivations in Outdoor Adventure Activities(2016-12-09) Zwart, RyanThe purpose of this study was to develop a better sense of student motivations to participate in university outdoor recreation programs (ORPs) with the hope that this furthered understanding would grant new considerations for administration of these programs on college campuses. While the study did not find significant differences between the majority of courses, this researcher suggests that further research is necessary to determine effects that reduction of activity types would have on participant students, as well as, student trip leaders or long term members of ORPs. A thorough literature review of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and insights from the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) provided a solid foundation for the development of this study. The SDT provides understanding in terms of the social development, trust, and control (Sibthorp & Jostad, 2014; Davidson, et.al, 2009) and how these outcomes and motivations encourage students to continue to take part in ORPs. The study clearly showed that these programs offer the social development and interpersonal relationships that students are looking for during their college years.Item CHRONIC OMEGA-3 SUPPLEMENTATION AND ERYTHROCYTE DEFORMABILITY, OXYGEN CONSUMPTION, AND PERFORMANCE DURING NORMOBARIC HYPOXIC EXERCISE(2017-03) Bielko, ShaneO2 delivery is dependent upon the ability of erythrocytes (diameter of ~8µm) to deform and to pass through the smaller microvasculature (~3µm). Reduced erythrocyte deformability in hypoxia could ultimately compromise O2 delivery to the microvasculature of skeletal muscles during exercise, thus impairing performance. Chronic supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids (PUFAs) has been shown to increase erythrocyte deformability, which may improve oxygenation and endurance exercise performance in acute hypoxia. PURPOSE: To determine if chronic ω-3 PUFA supplementation improves erythrocyte deformability, V̇O2, and cycling time to exhaustion during acute hypoxic exercise. METHODS: Thirteen young, healthy, endurance-trained subjects were divided into PUFA (V̇O2max=60.2 ± 4.5 mL.kg-1.min-1, n=6) and placebo (66.2 ± 4.1 mL.kg-1.min-1, n=7) groups. Subjects completed 6 weeks of supplementation with either ω-3 PUFAs (PUFA group; 3g EPA, 2g DHA/day) or placebo (placebo group; safflower oil). Subjects performed identical experimental sessions in acute normobaric hypoxia (FIO2=15%) pre- and post-supplementation that consisted of 3 min cycling / 10 min rest at 25% and 50% of normoxic peak power, as well as cycling to exhaustion at 75% of normoxic peak power. Erythrocyte elongation index (EI) via ektacytometry, V̇O2, and time to exhaustion were recorded for each trial. RESULTS: EI at 20 Pa of shear stress was significantly greater (e.g. higher deformability) within the PUFA group post-supplementation (pre: 0.574 ± 0.004; post: 0.580 ± 0.003; p<0.05). EI at 20 Pa was significantly greater post-supplementation in the PUFA group compared to the placebo group (PUFA: 0.580 ± 0.003; placebo: 0.574 ± 0.006; p<0.05). V̇O2 only during the 50% trial was significantly greater within the PUFA group post-supplementation compared to pre, while no significant differences in V̇O2 were seen between groups at 25%, 50%, or 75% of peak power, or at exhaustion. No significant improvements were seen in time to exhaustion within either group and no difference was seen between groups. CONCLUSION: In acute hypoxia, chronic PUFA supplementation significantly, but marginally (1%) improves erythrocyte deformability, but does not have a significant effect on oxygen uptake or performance.Item COLLEGE STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS ON TOURISM CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND TRAVEL DESTINATION DECISION-MAKING(2017-05) Zhao, HaoaiClimate and weather are widely recognized attributes that play important roles in tourism (Buzinde, Manuel-Navarrete, Kerstetter, & Redclift, 2010; de Freitas, 2001; Gössling, Bredberg, Randow, Sandström, & Svensson, 2006; Smith, 1993). For tourists, travel decisions are to a large extent based on destination images of sun, sand, sea, or availability of snow, and thus on perceptions of climate variables such as temperature, rain and humidity (de Freitas, 2001; Smith, c1993). However, according to United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) 2007 Davos declaration, the tourism industry contributes about 5% of global CO2 emissions. Since the college student travelers will become the main consumer population of global tourism market (International Youth Travel Organizations, 2003), studying college students’ perceptions of tourism impacts on climate change issues are critical for tourism destinations and suppliers. The purpose of this study is to enhance the understanding about the relationship between tourism and climate change issues among college students, in addition, to evaluating the impact of gender on knowledge and perceptions of climate change issues among college students, and its effects on travel behavior change. Using an online survey link and printed questionnaire, data were collected from a randomly selected sample of college. And due to the convenience sampling method, the student samples were mainly from the School of Public Health, Indiana University Bloomington. The study found that only gender influences students’ knowledge of travel’s impacts on climate change. In general, climate change knowledge and perception levels cannot be attributed to gender differences. To some extent, university education has an impact on college students’ climate change perceptions, and understanding of climate change knowledge.Item A Comparative Analysis of Race and Mattering in Leisure Literature([Bloomington, Ind.] : Indiana University, 2020-05) Rubinstein, Cassandra Faye; Mowatt, RasulThe purpose of this thesis was to examine the progression of discourse on race within leisure studies scholarship through the lens of racecraft and the construct of mattering. The Journal of Leisure Research as well as Schole were examined within the periods of the 1990s (1989 – 2000) and the 2010s (2009 – 2019). Articles were chosen based upon their employment of the keywords of community recreation, youth development, and race within both time periods, yielding a total of 99 articles that were examined. A discourse historical approach (DHA) was utilized in assessment of the impact of the socio-political context on leisure research as well as the development of discourse on race. Through DHA techniques and the concept of racecraft, this project classified articles under five overarching themes: Faint mentions of race, racialization in the negative, improper terminology use, intentionality of race, and inadequate lens of problem/solution. Based upon the findings of this thesis, leisure literature has displayed minimal progression in its conceptualizations of race. Leisure studies scholarship reflects the dominant discourse through its latent ideology of racism that maintains marginalization of various racialized ethnic groups. It is posited that, without institutional examination and targeted mitigation efforts, the field of leisure will continue to uphold a detrimental racial order with an underdeveloped political and historical stance on race.Item Comparison of Crossed-spinal modulation of the H-reflex between sedentary older adults and high-risk fallers(2015-09) Enyart, MicahThe purpose of this study was to compare crossed-spinal H-reflex modulation between healthy older adult subjects and older adults who are at a high risk of falling. 18 subjects participated in this study, and were divided into two different groups: 1) 14 neurologically healthy adults over the age of 65 (Age = 75.2 yrs; SD = 6.26); 2) 4 older adults determined by physicians or physical therapists to be high-risk fallers (Age = 78.3 yrs; SD = 4.02). Fall risk was based on history of previous falls and/or Tinetti balance scores. The variable being measured in this study was a spinal stretch reflex known as Hofmann reflex, or H-reflex. Subjects were asked to lie in the prone position for testing. In order to record muscle activity, EMG electrodes were placed on the left tibialis anterior and the right soleus muscles. Stimulating electrodes were then placed over the common peroneal nerve (CPN) of the left leg and the tibial nerve of the right leg. Baseline measurements were recorded for maximal motor response (M-max), maximal H-reflex response (H-max), and tibialis anterior motor threshold. For control measurements, a single stimulation was delivered to the right tibial nerve to evoke a motor response in the soleus. The intensity used for controls was set to 50% of H-max. For the conditioning protocol, stimulation was first delivered to the CPN at 1.2x motor threshold, then a tibial nerve stimulation followed at varying intervals of 25ms, 50ms, 75ms, 150ms, or 300ms. The goal of this conditioning protocol was to determine the effect that antagonist muscle activation has on its contralateral agonist’s spinal reflexes. Results showed a significant interaction between healthy older adults and high-risk fallers (F5,45 = 4.21, p < 0.05), specifically at the 75ms, 150ms, and 300ms intervals. While the healthy adults were able to modulate spinal reflexes based on the time interval, the high-risk fallers showed no modulation across intervals. This inability to properly modulate spinal reflexes could help to explain why these individuals fall more frequently.Item Comparison of two feeding regimens on endothelial function variability measured by peripheral arterial tonometry(2010-05) Liu, YibinConsumption of a high-fat meal has been shown to elicit endothelial dysfunction that contributes to cardiovascular events. The US diet pattern of frequent meals and snacks extends the postprandial state. The focus of this research was to optimize a feeding model to study the acute effects of two high-fat meals on endothelial-dependent vasodilation (reactive hyperemia index) and a biomarker of oxidative stress. The study was conducted to compare changes in endothelial function induced by two different feeding regimens (standard feeding regimen and body surface area-based feeding regimen) and to study the peripheral vascular function in the extended postprandial state. A 2 × 4 within subject design was used to investigate variability in reactive hyperemia index and oxidative stress. Ten male subjects (age 19-30 years, BMI 18.5-24.9 kg/m2, Body surface area 1.5-2.2 m2) were recruited and assigned to two feeding regimens, in random order, on different days, with a 1-week washout period. Each feeding regimen contained two meals that were consumed as “breakfast” (0h) and “lunch” (4h) on the test day. Each meal in feeding regimen 1 provided 850 kilocalories; whereas, each meal in feeding regimen 2 provided 460 kilocalorie/m2 subject body surface area. Reactive hyperemia index was measured, followed by blood draw at 0, 2, 4, 6 hours. Blood was analyzed for plasma malondialdehyde as a measure of oxidative stress. Blood glucose and triglyceride were measured to monitor the postprandial response at 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 hours. Power was too low to detect a significant difference in regimen × time interaction and main effect of feeding regimen for reactive iv hyperemia index and oxidative stress (p>0.05, 1-β<0.6). However, the feeding regimen based on body surface area might be a more effective model to use than the standard meal as shown by the greater effect size (ηp2 and ω2). More subjects are needed to confirm this finding. Reactive hyperemia index increased from the fasting state to the postprandial state (p<0.05). Oxidative stress was elevated 2 hours after “breakfast” (p<0.05) and decreased by 4 hours after “breakfast” (p<0.05).Item CYCLING ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE AND PERIPHERAL MUSCLE FATIGUE FOLLOWING MARINE LIPID FRACTION PCSO-524™ SUPPLEMENTATION AND ECCENTRIC EXERCISE IN UNTRAINED MALES(2014-04) Sinex, JacobINTRODUCTION: Intensive or unaccustomed eccentric exercise is known to cause exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) commonly resulting in delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). EIMD/DOMS can result in decrements in endurance and resistance exercise performance. Although many treatments have been investigated for the prevention and alleviation of EIMD/DOMS, success has been limited. PCSO-524™ marine lipid fraction has been found to attenuate symptoms of inflammatory diseases such as arthritis and asthma, and thus may be a viable intervention to reduce inflammation-related EIMD/DOMS. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of PCSO-524™ supplementation on cycling endurance performance, peripheral muscle fatigue, muscle soreness and muscle damage following eccentric exercise. METHODS: Subjects were thirty-two healthy, untrained men aged 18 – 26 who had not previously exercised for more than three times per week for 30 minutes each session for the past 90 days and had not participated in resistance training during the previous 60 days. Subjects were randomly assigned to consume 8 capsules PCSO-524™ (800 mg olive oil, 400 mg lipid extract) daily or olive oil (1200 mg) placebo for 30 days. Subjects completed three 20 minute cycling time trials (TT), thirty days of PCSO-524™ or placebo supplementation, a 20 minute downhill run (DHR) at -16% grade after 26 days of supplementation and potentiated quadriceps twitch force (Qtw,pot) measures before and after the latter two TT. Each subject completed a familiarization TT, a pre-supplementation TT and a TT 24 hours following DHR. DOMS was measured via 11 point pain scale at baseline, following supplementation and 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours following DHR. Slow skeletal troponin I (sTnI) was measured pre-supplementation, post-supplementation and following DHR at 0, 2, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours. RESULTS: Cycling time trial performance was not significantly affected by DHR for PCSO-524™ (F = .106, p = .749) or placebo (F = .122, p = .732) groups. No significant differences were found in mean power output between PCSO-524™ and placebo groups. PCSO-524™ attenuated DOMS significantly at 72 hours (T = 2.48, p < .05; 95% CI = 0.3 – 2.6), and 96 hours post-run (T = 2.1, p < .05; 95% CI = 0.04 – 2.7). Qtw,pot decreased for the placebo group following DHR (T = 2.095, p < .05), but did not change significantly for the PCSO-524™ group (T = .38, p > .05). Serum sTnI was significantly (p < .05) lower in the PCSO-524™ group at 2, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours post-DHR. CONCLUSIONS: Thirty days of PCSO-524™ supplementation does not improve cycling endurance performance in untrained men after eccentric exercise compared to placebo. Thirty days of PCSO-524™ supplementation reduces muscle soreness following eccentric exercise, peripheral quadriceps fatigue in EIMD-affected muscles after endurance exercise and muscle damage following eccentric exercise.Item DECEPTION AND EXERCISE PERFORMANCE DURING REPEATED 4-KM CYCLING TIME TRIALS(2013-07) Shei, Ren-JayCyclists have been shown to improve their performance in a simulated 4-km laboratory based time trial when given feedback derived from a prior performance which is surreptitiously augmented. Presently, it is unknown whether or not these performance gains are persistent after the subjects are informed of the deception. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate whether or not performance gains achieved through deception persist after the deception was revealed. A secondary aim of this study was to assess whether the subjects’ pacing strategy changed after the deception was revealed. METHODS: The subjects were trained competitive cyclists. All subjects who were admitted into the study completed a total of four (4) simulated 4-kilometer cycling time trials comprising of a familiarization trial, baseline trial (BAS), deception trial (DEC), and knowledge of deception trial (KDE) performed on separate occasions. In the DEC and KDE trials, subjects competed against an on-screen avatar set to 102% of their baseline average power output. Time to completion, average power output, mean power output for each 0.5-km segment of the distance covered, and change in blood lactate concentration from pre- to post- time trial for each time trial were recorded. RESULTS: Subjects who completed the DEC trial faster compared to BAS trial also completed the KDE trial faster compared to the BAS trial (F = 13.61, p = 0.003), but time to completion in DEC and KDE trials were not different in these subjects (95% CI = -3.3 to 4.3s). Subjects who did not complete the DEC trial faster than the BAS trial also demonstrated differences in time to completion (F = 17.31, p = 0.003), with the KDE trial being completed faster than the DEC trial (95% CI = 5.3 to 17.5 s), but not the BAS trial (95% CI = -6.3 to 15.0 s). Analysis of the pacing strategy adopted by subjects revealed no differences between trials for subjects who improved in the DEC trial (F = 1.53, p = 0.238), but significant differences were observed in subjects who did not improve in the DEC trial (F = 8.91, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Trained cyclists whose performance improves upon receiving surreptitiously augmented feedback during simulated 4-km time trials are able to retain their performance gains once the deception is revealed. They do not appear to adopt a different pacing strategy in either of the improved trials (DEC and KDE).Item DEFICITS IN FUNCTIONAL MOVEMENT PATTERNS AND RUNNING ECONOMY OF TRAINED ENDURANCE RUNNERS(2015-08) Blohm, BriannaINTRODUCTION: It has been well established that the mechanics of running gait play a significant role in running economy. Running gait is influenced by many musculoskeletal factors, which can change movement patterns. An individual’s fundamental dynamic movement patterns can be evaluated using the Functional Movement Screen (FMS). Individuals with less movement deficits, specifically asymmetries, may demand less oxygen during activity than individuals with more movement deficits. PURPOSE: This study looked at how deficits in functional movement patterns relate to the running economy of trained endurance runners. Specifically, one aim of this study was to demonstrate that runners who have one or more asymmetries during the FMS demand more oxygen as they run. A second aim was to demonstrate that runners who score 14 or less on the FMS demand more oxygen. A third aim was to demonstrate that runners who score a 2 or less on the Hurdle Step test demand more oxygen than runners who score a 3 on the Hurdle Step FMS test. METHODS: Forty trained endurance runners were tested in the lab on one occasion. Each subject performed all 7 movement tests of the FMS. Next, each subject performed a running economy test consisting of 3 4-minute submaximal trials on the treadmill (women: 10, 12, and 14 km/hr; men: 12, 14, and 16 km/hr). An independent t-test was utilized for each independent variable of interest (asymmetry presence, total FMS score, Hurdle Step score). An alpha of p<0.05 was used to indicate statistical significance. RESULTS: There was a significant difference in running economy between the asymmetrical group (n=21) and the symmetrical group (n=19), only at the speed of 14 km/hour. Contrary to our original hypothesis, the asymmetrical group was more economical than the symmetrical group. Comparing running economy between asymmetrical and symmetrical FMS scorers (men and women together and separately) at all other speeds did not reach statistical significance. There was no difference between running economy of the FMS Hurdle Step test score of 3 group (n=19) and the FMS Hurdle Step test score of 2 or less group (n=21) at any speed. Furthermore, there was no difference between running economy of the FMS Total Score of 14 or less group (n=2) and the FMS Total Score of 15 or more group (n=38) at any speed. CONCLUSION: Trained runners who displayed movement asymmetries as determined by the Functional Movement Screen demonstrated lower oxygen uptakes during submaximal running than runners who were symmetrical on the FMS movements. Although movement asymmetries have been linked to higher injury risk, there may be an advantage of lower metabolic cost during running, which may be due to differences in leg stiffness. Although total FMS score and scores specifically on the hurdle step movement did not influence running economy, the FMS screen remains a staple of pre-participation screening for athletes of all disciplines.Item DIFFERENCES IN ARCH INDEX, REARFOOT PLANTAR PRESSURE, AND FOREFOOT DEVIATION FROM CENTER OF FORCE TRAJECTORY IN THOSE WITH CHRONIC ANKLE INSTABILITY, NO HISTORY OF LATERAL ANKLE SPRAIN, AND COPERS.(2014-05) Vincent, LaurenThe purpose of this study was to investigate differences in arch index, rearfoot plantar pressure, and forefoot deviation from center of force trajectory in those with chronic ankle instability, copers, and no history of lateral ankle sprain. A total of fifty-seven subjects from the local community volunteered for this study. There were 20 subjects in the CAI group (age, 20 ± 3 years; height, 173.61 ± 7.84 cm; mass, 73.91 ± 17.58 kg), 20 subjects in the control group (age, 20 ± 1 years; height, 169.90 ± 9.50 cm; mass, 64.53 ± 14.01 kg), and 17 subjects in the copers group (age, 20 ± 2 years; height, 171.34 ± 7.75 cm; mass, 71.18 ± 13.00 kg). Each subject completed one session of testing in which they walked barefoot across pressure mats at a self-selected speed. The composite footprint of each trial was then divided into rearfoot, midfoot, and forefoot for arch index (foot contact area), medial and lateral rearfoot for medial/lateral rearfoot pressure ratios, and then center of force trajectory deviation from a bisection line in the forefoot. The mean of three trials was used for statistical analysis. Each dependent variable (arch index, medial/lateral rearfoot pressure ratio, and forefoot deviation of center of force trajectory) was analyzed through separate 1-way ANOVA, with 1 between-subject factor (CAI, copers, and control) and a Chi-square Test of Independence. Alpha was set at p < .05. For arch index, a one-way ANOVA yielded no significant differences between the three groups (F2,54 = 0.26, p = 0.77, p2 = 0.01, power = 0.09). A Chi-Square test of independence was calculated comparing the categorical foot types between the three groups, which showed no significant differences (2(4) = 6.59, p = 0.16). For rearfoot medial/lateral pressure ratio, a one-way ANOVA yielded no significant differences between the three groups (F2,54 = 0.69, p = 0.50, p2 = 0.03, power = 0.16). A Chi-Square test of independence was calculated comparing the categories of medial versus lateral rearfoot pressure between the three groups, which showed no significant difference (2(2) = 4.80, p = 0.09). For maximal forefoot deviation from center of force trajectory, a one-way ANOVA yielded no significant differences between the three groups (F2,54 = 1.19, p = 0.31, p2 = 0.04, power = 0.25). A Chi-Square test of independence was calculated comparing the categories of medial versus lateral rearfoot pressure between the three groups, which revealed no significant difference (2(4) = 2.77, p = 0.60). These results of the statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between the three groups in regards to arch index, medial/lateral rearfoot pressure, or forefoot deviation from center of force trajectory. Since these dependent variables may not contribute to the development of chronic ankle instability, other factors such as proprioceptive deficits and neuromuscular differences may play a greater role. Therefore, clinicians should work on improving proprioception and strengthening of the ankle joint rather than focusing on foot type or locations of plantar pressure.