School of Public and Environmental Affairs

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Black Churches and HIV/AIDS: Factors Influencing Congregations’ Responsiveness to Social Issues
(Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 2011-09) Fulton, Brad R.
The ambivalent response of many black churches to current social issues has caused some scholars to question the centrality of black churches within African‐American communities. Using a nationally representative sample of black congregations, this study engages the debate about the institutional centrality of black churches by focusing on their response to HIV/AIDS. Although many congregational studies treat black churches as a monolithic whole, this analysis identifies heterogeneity among black churches that shapes their responsiveness to social issues. Contrary to prior claims, a congregation's liberal‐conservative ideological orientation does not significantly affect its likelihood of having an HIV/AIDS program. Beyond assessing churches’ internal characteristics, this study uses institutional theory to analyze churches as open systems that can be influenced by their surrounding environment. It demonstrates that externally engaged congregations are significantly more likely to have a program. These results indicate that black churches maintain institutional centrality by engaging their external environment.
Bridging and Bonding: Disentangling Two Mechanisms Underlying the Diversity–Performance Relationship
(Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 2020-07-13) Fulton, Brad R.
Although extensive research has examined whether diversity hinders or improves organizational performance, the aggregate results remain inconclusive. Social bridging theories argue that diverse organizations perform better than homogeneous organizations, while social bonding theories argue that diverse organizations perform worse. When scholars test these competing theories, they often specify bridging and bonding as the inverse of one another. This study instead specifies them as distinct mechanisms and measures them independently using data from a national study of organizations containing information on the race, class, gender, and religion of each organization’s leadership team and the frequency, type, and content of their interactions. The analysis indicates that both bridging and bonding are positively associated with an organization’s performance; however, their respective performance benefits depend on the type of task being performed. The results suggest that social diversity facilitates performance related to accessing external resources and social interaction facilitates performance related to internal coordination.
Civil Society Organizations and the Enduring Role of Religion in Promoting Democratic Engagement
(VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 2018-02) Fulton, Brad R.; Wood, Richard L.
As Tocqueville observed the emergence of democracy in the USA, he noted the central role religion played in undergirding democratic life. Nearly 200 years later, it is unclear whether religion continues to possess sufficient capacity to promote democratic engagement. This study links organizational theory with research on the structural and cultural characteristics of civil society organizations (CSOs) to assess the current impact of religion on democracy. It analyzes original data from a national study of politically oriented CSOs to determine whether drawing on structural characteristics of religious congregations and cultural elements of religion helps the organizations promote democratic engagement. The analysis finds a positive relationship between organizations that incorporate structural and cultural forms of religion and their organizing capacity, political access, and mobilizing capacity. These findings suggest that religion, mediated by congregations and religious culture, retains sufficient civic vitality to help politically oriented CSOs foster democratic engagement.
Contributions of individual reactive biogenic volatile organic compounds to organic nitrates above a mixed forest
(Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union, 2012) Pratt, K.A.; Mielke, L.H.; Shepson, P.B.; Bryan, A.M.; Steiner, A.L.; Ortega, J.; Daly, R.; Helmig, D.; Vogel, C.S.; Griffith, S.; Dusanter, S.; Stevens, P.S.; Alghmand, M.
Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) can react in the atmosphere to form organic nitrates, which serve as $\text{NO}_{x} (\text{NO} + \text{NO}_{2})$ reservoirs, impacting ozone and secondary organic aerosol production, the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere, and nitrogen availability to ecosystems. To examine the contributions of biogenic emissions and the formation and fate of organic nitrates in a forest environment, we simulated the oxidation of 57 individual BVOCs emitted from a rural mixed forest in northern Michigan. Key BVOC-oxidant reactions were identified for future laboratory and field investigations into reaction rate constants, yields, and speciation of oxidation products. Of the total simulated organic nitrates, monoterpenes contributed ~70% in the early morning at ~12 m above the forest canopy when isoprene emissions were low. In the afternoon, when vertical mixing and isoprene nitrate production were highest, the simulated contribution of isoprene-derived organic nitrates was greater than 90% at all altitudes, with the concentration of secondary isoprene nitrates increasing with altitude. Notably, reaction of isoprene with $\text{NO}_{3}$ leading to isoprene nitrate formation was found to be significant (~8% of primary organic nitrate production) during the daytime, and monoterpene reactions with $\text{NO}_{3}$ were simulated to comprise up to ~83% of primary organic nitrate production at night. Lastly, forest succession, wherein aspen trees are being replaced by pine and maple trees, was predicted to lead to increased afternoon concentrations of monoterpene-derived organic nitrates. This further underscores the need to understand the formation and fate of these species, which have different chemical pathways and oxidation products compared to isoprene-derived organic nitrates and can lead to secondary organic aerosol formation.
Critical Standpoint: Leaders of Color Advancing Racial Equality in Predominantly White Organizations
(Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 2019-08-30) Fulton, Brad R.; Oyakawa, Michelle; Wood, Richard L.
Organizations are often core sites for the production and perpetuation of social inequality. Although the U.S. is becoming more racially diverse, organizational elites remain disproportionately white, and this mismatch contributes to increasing racial inequality. This article examines whether and how leaders of color within predominantly white organizations can help their organizations address racial inequality. Our analysis uses data from a national study of politically oriented civic organizations and ethnographic fieldwork within one predominantly white organization. We draw on institutional work research, the outsider-within concept, and insights from critical whiteness theory to explain how leaders of color can use their position and “critical standpoint” to help guide their organization toward advancing racial equality. The qualitative analysis shows how such leaders, when empowered, help their organization address race internally by 1) providing alternatives to white-dominated perspectives, 2) developing tools to educate white members about racial inequality, and 3) identifying and addressing barriers to becoming a more racially diverse organization. The qualitative analysis also shows how leaders of color help their organization address race externally by 1) sharing personal narratives about living in a white-dominated society and 2) brokering collaborations with organizations led by people of color. This research has implications for organizations seeking to promote social equality: Organizational leaders from marginalized status groups can help their organizations address social inequality, if those leaders possess a critical standpoint and sufficient organizational authority.
The economic practices of U.S. congregations: A review of current research and future opportunities
(Social Compass, 2019-06-04) Mundey, Peter; King, David; Fulton, Brad R.
Religious congregations in the US receive substantially more philanthropic contributions than any other category of organizations, yet little research has investigated how congregations receive, manage, and spend these donations. Although the economic practice of religious giving has been researched extensively, most of this research has focused on individuals or households, seeking to explain why people give to religious organizations. Relatively little research has examined the recipients of religious giving to determine how giving works within and affects these organizations. This review examines studies in the field of congregational finances, assesses available sources of data on congregations’ economic practices, and concludes with recommendations for new avenues of research in this field.
Energy-Based Economic Development
(Elsevier, 2010-08-17) Benami, Elinor; Nourafshan, Andrew; Brown, Adrienne; Lawrence, Sara; Carley, Sanya
The fields of economic development and energy policy and planning have converged in recent years to form an emerging discipline, which we term “energy-based economic development” (EBED). Despite the significant amount of stimulus funds, as well as state and local funding, that are being allocated to EBED initiatives in the United States, the emerging discipline has received scant attention in the energy, policy, and development literature. The link between energy and economic development in the literature is still theoretical, mostly focused on the need for and the potential benefits of EBED, and rarely applied. Furthermore, funding for EBED has outpaced understanding of the discipline, development of rigorous technical approaches, and meaningful ways to measure impact. Such information would not only help practitioners and policymakers more thoroughly understand the confines of the discipline and shape goals and approaches accordingly, but it would also help researchers identify, track, and evaluate a variety of activities in the field. With national and international attention focused on the convergence of these fields, researchers and practitioners have a rare opportunity to develop and implement the tools necessary to evaluate and communicate the potentially broader impacts that EBED may hold for society. If ways to leverage and sustain the injection of funds in this discipline are not identified, the opportunity may end before we can achieve either energy policy or economic development goals. In an attempt to respond to this need, this analysis explores the connection between energy and economic development, beginning with a review of the trends in each field and the goals that each seeks to achieve. On the basis of this information, we define the discipline of EBED, review the existing literature on it, and offer insights and perspectives on its emergence.
Engaging Differences: How Socially Diverse Organizations Can Mobilize Their Resources More Effectively
(Social Forces, 2020-09-01) Fulton, Brad R.
Diversity is a goal for many organizations, yet it is not always connected to improved performance. This study advances diversity-performance research by examining the effect of engaging social differences. The analysis uses data from a national study of organizations containing information on the race, gender, class, and religion of each organization’s leaders as well as information on the type and content of interactions occurring among them. The data also contain multiple measures of organizational output, specifically the organization’s performance in forming alliances, developing strategies, organizing constituents, and mobilizing people. The analysis focuses on organizations with a diverse leadership team, examining the teams’ social interactions to assess whether engaging members’ social differences is associated with better performance. Additionally, qualitative data illustrate how engaging social differences impacts organizational outcomes. The study finds that teams whose members regularly participate in bridging cultural activities and discuss their social differences achieve greater output. Overall, this study indicates that an organization’s ability to realize the performance benefits of having a diverse leadership team is related to how the leaders interact with each other. The findings suggest that diverse organizations can improve their performance by ensuring that their members interact in ways that engage their social differences.
Floodplain restoration enhances denitrification and reach-scale nitrogen removal in an agricultural stream
(The Ecological Society of America, 2012) Roley, S.S.; Tank, J.L.; Stephen, M.L.; Johnson, L.T.; Beaulieu, J.J.; Witter, J.D.
Streams of the agricultural Midwest, USA, export large quantities of nitrogen, which impairs downstream water quality, most notably in the Gulf of Mexico. The two-stage ditch is a novel restoration practice, in which floodplains are constructed alongside channelized ditches. During high flows, water flows across the floodplains, increasing benthic surface area and stream water residence time, as well as the potential for nitrogen removal via denitrification. To determine two-stage ditch nitrogen removal efficacy, we measured denitrification rates in the channel and on the floodplains of a two-stage ditch in north-central Indiana for one year before and two years after restoration. We found that instream rates were similar before and after the restoration, and they were influenced by surface water $\text{NO}_{3}^{−}$ concentration and sediment organic matter content. Denitrification rates were lower on the constructed floodplains and were predicted by soil exchangeable $\text{NO}_{3}^{−}$ concentration. Using storm flow simulations, we found that two-stage ditch restoration contributed significantly to $\text{NO}_{3}^{−}$ removal during storm events, but because of the high $\text{NO}_{3}^{−}$ loads at our study site, <10% of the $\text{NO}_{3}^{−}$ load was removed under all storm flow scenarios. The highest percentage of $\text{NO}_{3}^{−}$ removal occurred at the lowest loads; therefore, the two-stage ditch's effectiveness at reducing downstream N loading will be maximized when the practice is coupled with efforts to reduce N inputs from adjacent fields.
Fostering Muslim Civic Engagement through Faith-Based Community Organizing
(Journal of Muslim Philanthropy & Civil Society, 2018-06) Fulton, Brad R.
Muslims often encounter discriminatory practices similar to those experienced by other minority groups living in the United States. Such practices range from mass incarceration and anti-immigration efforts to racial and religious profiling. In response, a growing number of U.S. Muslim leaders are organizing their communities and collaborating with non-Muslims to address these issues through civic participation and political action. At the same time, several foundations throughout the country have begun asking how to promote civic engagement among U.S. Muslims. Although little is known about U.S. Muslim civic engagement and its outcomes, data from a national study indicate that faith-based community organizing is becoming a viable pathway for Muslim communities to (1) strengthen themselves internally by developing civic leaders and mobilizing everyday Muslims to address issues affecting their community and (2) strengthen their external ties by bridging religious and social differences and by promoting policies that also benefit non-Muslims.
Historical analysis of U.S. electricity markets: Reassessing carbon lock-in
(Elsevier, 2011-02) Carley, Sanya
This paper evaluates whether the U.S. electricity sector is directed away from carbon- intensive technological lock-in, and which factors are contributing, or have potential to contribute, to a possible reorientation of the industry. With the application of a historical analysis of the electricity sector from the late nineteenth century through current day, this analysis finds that, although the industry still relies primarily on carbon-intensive fossil fuel operations, several recent trends indicate that the industry is becoming less carbon intensive, smaller in generation system scale, and more sustainable in operations. Crucial drivers—firm level interactions with technological change, industry leadership and market structure, government intervention and policy momentum, and citizen involvement and behavior patterns—that have traditionally shaped the structure, scale, and environmental footprint of the industry, have also played a prominent role in recent transformations. These results indicate that triggering or extraordinary events may not be necessary to initiate an escape from carbon lock-in in the electricity sector. Complete escape is not yet definitive, however, and it remains to be seen whether the industry is able to transform entirely before any significant climate change disturbances occur.
In What Ways do Religious Congregations Address HIV? Examining Predictors of Different Types of Congregational HIV Activities
(Journal of HIV/AIDS & Social Services, 2018-12-03) Williams, Malcolm V.; Derose, Kathryn P.; Haas, Ann; Griffin, Beth Ann; Fulton, Brad R.
Religious congregations play an important role in HIV prevention and care. However, most research on congregation-based HIV activities has focused on prevention. Using data from a nationally representative survey of U.S. congregations, this study found that 18.6% of congregations were engaged in some type of HIV activity; 8.7% engaged in prevention; 7.6% offered support to people with HIV; 7.4% raised awareness; and 7.6% provided donations for other organizations’ HIV activities. Among congregations that participate in some type of HIV activities, having more educated clergy is associated with higher odds of engaging in support, raising awareness, and giving donations relative to prevention activities. Being a predominantly African-American congregation is associated with lower odds of these other three types of HIV activities compared to prevention activities. Understanding the factors associated with specific types of HIV activities helps inform policy and practice related to congregation-based HIV programming.
In-canopy gas-phase chemistry during CABINEX 2009: Sensitivity of a 1-D canopy model to vertical mixing and isoprene chemistry
(Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union, 2012) Bryan, A.M.; Bertman, S.B.; Carroll, M.A.; Dusanter, S.; Edwards, G.D.; Forkel, R.; Griffith, S.; Geunther, A.B.; Hansen, R.F.; Helmig, D.; Jobson, B.T.; Keutsch, F.N.; Lefer, B.L.; Pressley, S.N.; Shepson, P.B.; Stevens, P.S.; Steiner, A.L.
Vegetation emits large quantities of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOC). At remote sites, these compounds are the dominant precursors to ozone and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) production, yet current field studies show that atmospheric models have difficulty in capturing the observed HOx cycle and concentrations of BVOC oxidation products. In this manuscript, we simulate BVOC chemistry within a forest canopy using a one-dimensional canopy-chemistry model (Canopy Atmospheric CHemistry Emission model; CACHE) for a mixed deciduous forest in northern Michigan during the CABINEX 2009 campaign. We find that the base-case model, using fully-parameterized mixing and the simplified biogenic chemistry of the Regional Atmospheric Chemistry Model (RACM), underestimates daytime in-canopy vertical mixing by 50–70% and by an order of magnitude at night, leading to discrepancies in the diurnal evolution of HOx, BVOC, and BVOC oxidation products. Implementing observed micrometeorological data from above and within the canopy substantially improves the diurnal cycle of modeled BVOC, particularly at the end of the day, and also improves the observation-model agreement for some BVOC oxidation products and OH reactivity. We compare the RACM mechanism to a version that includes the Mainz isoprene mechanism (RACM-MIM) to test the model sensitivity to enhanced isoprene degradation. RACM-MIM simulates higher concentrations of both primary BVOC (isoprene and monoterpenes) and oxidation products (HCHO, MACR+MVK) compared with RACM simulations. Additionally, the revised mechanism alters the OH concentrations and increases HO2. These changes generally improve agreement with HOx observations yet overestimate BVOC oxidation products, indicating that this isoprene mechanism does not improve the representation of local chemistry at the site. Overall, the revised mechanism yields smaller changes in BVOC and BVOC oxidation product concentrations and gradients than improving the parameterization of vertical mixing with observations, suggesting that uncertainties in vertical mixing parameterizations are an important component in understanding observed BVOC chemistry.
Incorporated but Not IRS-Registered: Exploring the (Dark) Grey Fringes of the Nonprofit Universe
(Sage/Association For Research On Nonprofit Organizations And Voluntary Action, 2010-09-10) Gronbjerg, Kirsten A.; Liu, Helen K.; Pollack, Thomas H.
Listings of Internal Revenue Service (IRS)-registered and state-incorporated nonprofits for the same region may differ for a variety of reasons. Using Indiana as a case study, we first describe the distribution of nonprofits across these two listings. We then present findings from a small telephone survey of incorporated nonprofits that are not registered with the IRS for Indiana to explore whether they are excluded from the IRS-listing for statutory, technical, or compliance reasons. We consider several aspects of state incorporation status: date of incorporation and whether active status has been maintained or not. We conclude that researchers need to pay careful attention to the limitations of the IRS registration system when wishing to examine the dimensions of the nonprofit sector at local, state, or regional levels. Our finding, that some nonprofits fail to maintain active incorporation status, points to significant problems of nonprofit capacity.
Interfaith Community Organizing Emerging Theological and Organizational Challenges
(International Journal of Public Theology, 2012-01) Fulton, Brad R.; Wood, Richard L.
Interfaith work in the United States takes diverse forms: from grass-roots collaboration on projects such as feeding the homeless, to locally-sponsored interfaith dialogues, collaborations sponsored by national denominational bodies and shared work on federal ‘faith-based initiatives’. This article profiles the characteristics and dynamics of a particular type of interfaith work, done under the rubric of ‘broad-based’, ‘faith-based’ or ‘congregation-based’ community organizing. For reasons detailed below, we term this form of interfaith and religious-secular collaboration ‘institution-based community organizing’. By drawing on results from a national survey of all local institution-based community organizations active in the United States in 2011, this article documents the significance of the field, its broadly interfaith profile, how it incorporates religious practices into organizing, and the opportunities and challenges that religious diversity presents to its practitioners and to North American society
National Trends in Food Insecurity and Congregation-Based Food Provision between 1998 and 201
(Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 2019-04-12) Florez, Karen; Fulton, Brad R.; Derose, Kathryn
Food insecurity has been a persistent problem in the U.S., and yet over the past three decades, federally funded food programs have become more restrictive. Scholars and policymakers have inquired whether the nonprofit sector is increasing its food provision activities to address this unmet need. This study analyzes data from the U.S. Census and a nationally representative survey of religious congregations in the U.S. to examine trends in food insecurity and congregation-based food provision between 1998 and 2012. The objective of the study is to investigate the extent to which congregation-based food provision fluctuated with national food insecurity prevalence for the overall population, and for subgroups vulnerable to this condition. Results show an over-time correspondence between the prevalence of food-insecure households and the prevalence of congregations that provide food. Parallel patterns are observed between food insecurity in disproportionately affected subpopulations (e.g., African-Americans and immigrants) and food provision in the congregations likely to serve those households. These findings indicate that congregations are helping meet the needs of food-insecure households. However, research suggests that congregations and nonprofits are not an adequate substitute for federally funded programs. Policy recommendations include expanding access to federally funded programs like the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) to more immigrants and other groups vulnerable to food insecurity, as well as providing more systematic financial or federal support and quality control of congregation-based efforts.
Network Ties and Organizational Action: Explaining Variation in Social Service Provision Patterns
(Management and Organizational Studies, 2016-06) Fulton, Brad R.
This study integrates social capital theory and network analysis to explore the relationship betweeninterorganizational networks and organizational action. It analyzes the collaborative partnerships that religiouscongregations form to provide social services, and it examines how these ties are associated with the number andtypes of programs they offer. Using cross-sectional and panel data from a national study of congregations, theanalysis finds significant relationships between congregations’ interorganizational ties and their social serviceprovision patterns. Congregations that collaborate with other organizations offer more programs, and the effect iseven greater for congregations with a diverse portfolio of collaborators. Furthermore, a network analysis indicatesthat congregations with a similar portfolio of collaborators offer a similar menu of services. This study demonstratesthat an organization’s collaborative ties, above and beyond its internal characteristics, are significantly associatedwith both the volume and scope of its activity.
Organizations and Survey Research: Implementing Response Enhancing Strategies and Conducting Nonresponse Analyses
(Sociological Methods & Research, 2016-01) Fulton, Brad R.
Surveys provide a critical source of data for scholars, yet declining response rates are threatening the quality of data being collected. This threat is particularly acute among organizational studies that use key informants—the mean response rate for published studies is 34 percent. This article describes several response enhancing strategies and explains how they were implemented in a national study of organizations that achieved a 94 percent response rate. Data from this study are used to examine the relationship between survey response patterns and nonresponse bias by conducting nonresponse analyses on several important individual and organizational characteristics. The analyses indicate that nonresponse bias is associated with the mean/proportion and variance of these variables and their correlations with relevant organizational outcomes. After identifying the variables most susceptible to nonresponse bias, a final analysis calculates the minimum response rate those variables needed to ensure that they do not contain significant nonresponse bias. Heuristic versions of these analyses can be used by survey researchers during data collection (and by scholars retrospectively) to assess the representativeness of respondents and the degree of nonresponse bias variables contain. This study has implications for survey researchers, scholars who analyze survey data, and those who review their research.
Organizing Together: Benefits and Drawbacks of Community-Labor Coalitions for Community Organizations
(Social Service Review, 2020-03) Doussard, Marc; Fulton, Brad R.
Community-labor coalitions unite grassroots community organizations and hierarchical labor unions with the promise of increasing the effectiveness of each. Little is known, however, about whether and how community organizations benefit from such partnerships. We analyze survey data from the National Study of Community Organizing Organizations and field data from community-labor coalitions in Chicago to identify benefits and drawbacks for community organizations collaborating with unions. We find that community organizations that have unions as members generate more media attention, possess a broader tactical repertoire, and are more likely to mount state-level advocacy campaigns. Those benefits, however, come at the expense of grassroots mobilizing and result in less neighborhood-level organizing, fewer volunteers, and smaller turnouts at protest actions, all of which are vital to community organizing. Understanding these benefits and drawbacks can help advocates adjust strategy, tactics, and goals to ensure the long-term viability of community-labor coalitions.
Predictors of the Existence of Congregational HIV Programs: Similarities and Differences Compared with other Health Programs
(American Journal of Health Promotion, 2015-07) Williams, Malcolm V.; Haas, Ann; Griffin, Beth Ann; Fulton, Brad R.; Kanouse, David E.; Bogart, Laura M.; Derose, Kathryn Pitkin
Purpose: Identify and compare predictors of the existence of congregational human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other health programs. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: United States. Subjects: A nationally representative sample of 1506 U.S. congregations surveyed in the National Congregations Study (2006–2007). Measures: Key informants at each congregation completed in-person and telephone interviews on congregational HIV and other health programs and various congregation characteristics (response rate = 78%). County-level HIV prevalence and population health data from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation's 2007 County Health Rankings were linked to the congregational data. Analysis: Multinomial logistic regression was used to assess factors that predict congregational health programs relative to no health programs; and of HIV programs relative to other health activities. Results: Most congregations (57.5%) had at least one health-related program; many fewer (5.7%) had an HIV program. Predictors of health vs. HIV programs differed. The number of adults in the congregation was a key predictor of health programs, while having an official statement welcoming gay persons was a significant predictor of HIV programs (p < .05). Other significant characteristics varied by size of congregation and type of program (HIV vs. other health). Conclusion: Organizations interested in partnering with congregations to promote health or prevent HIV should consider congregational size as well as other factors that predict involvement. Results of this study can inform policy interventions to increase the capacity of religious congregations to address HIV and health.

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